Sensation & Perception in Color-Blind Individuals & Social Cognitive Theory of Learning Paper An Alternative to Study Participation 1) As an alternative to
Sensation & Perception in Color-Blind Individuals & Social Cognitive Theory of Learning Paper An Alternative to Study Participation 1) As an alternative to participation in psychological studies, you may write two-page papers on topics relevant to your class. Each of these papers will count as one hour of participation in a study. You will need to submit four two-page papers in total. 2) Each paper must consist of two, double-spaced text pages (at least 600 words) and be on a topic related to some area of Psychology discussed in your particular Introductory course (in other words, not on a topic in an area of Psychology irrelevant to your class). If you choose to write more than one paper to complete the requirement, each must be on a different topic. 3) Each paper should discuss some finding, idea, or application of a relevant topic that goes beyond what was discussed in your readings and lecture. For example, you may write about a new finding discussed in the media that is relevant to a topic discussed in your class but was not directly mentioned either in lecture, discussion, or your readings. 4) It is important that you choose a reputable source for your paper topic – for example some professional magazine, newspaper, or online source – and not simply a discussion board or amateur blog. You are to list your source(s) at the bottom of your paper so that it can be verified. Your paper should be written completely in your own words and you are not to plagiarize in any way. If you have any questions about plagiarism, please refer to: http://www.plagiarism.org/ Ch. 5: The Perceiving Mind: Sensation and
Perception
This section covers:
▪ The key concepts in the study of sensation and
perception
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Sensation and Perception
How do people navigate
through the world?
▪ Sensation: Receive signals
from the environment.
▪ Perception: Organizing and
interpreting these signals.
Sometimes, we don’t
immediately perceive what
we sense
Sensory Processes
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Sensation and Perception
1. Sensation is the detection of simple properties
of stimuli, such as brightness, color, warmth,
texture.
1. Perception is the recognition of objects (both
animate and inanimate) , their locations, their
movements and backgrounds.
2. Seeing the color red is sensation, recognizing
a red apple is perception
Sensory Processes
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Transduction and Sensory coding
1. Transduction: the process by which the sensory
organs convert energy from environmental event
into neural activity.
Stimuli in the environment activate sensory
receptors, which then leads to brain activation, and
thus sensation and perception of that stimulus.
2. Sensory coding: how our brain interprets that
sensation. Sensory coding contains ‘what’
(anatomical) and ‘when’ (temporal) information.
Sensory Processes
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
An Overview of Sensation to Perception
Sensory Processes
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Psychophysics
Study of the relationship between
physical stimuli and perceptual
experience.
▪ Concept of threshold. A stimulus must
present itself over a given threshold to
be detected. A sound must be ‘loud
enough’ to be heard, otherwise it is
‘below threshold’ for hearing
Sensory Processes
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Absolute Thresholds
The lowest level of stimulation that can be
detected 50% of the time
Sensory Processes
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Absolute Thresholds – The Five Senses
Sense
Absolute Threshold
Vision
A fire from 30 miles away
Hearing
A mosquito buzzing from 10 feet away
Smell
One drop of perfume in a six-room
Apartment
Taste
One tsp of sugar in two gallons of
water
Touch
The wing of a fly falling on your cheek
from 1cm.
Sensory Processes
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Difference Thresholds and Weber’s Law
•Weber’s Law: The amount of difference that
can be detected depends on the size of
stimuli being compared. As stimuli get larger,
differences must also become larger to be
detected by an observer.
▪ Just Noticeable Difference (JND) –
smallest difference in a stimulus that a
person can detect
Sensory Processes
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Adding books……
Sensory Processes
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
JND: Hypothetical Range of Perceived Brightness as a
Function of Intensity. JNDs get bigger as light gets brighter
Sensory Processes
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Signal Detection…
Some people are better than others at detecting
sensory experiences. When testing them, how
do we get subjects to really show us their
abilities?
Signal detection method: the best way to
determine a person’s sensitivity to the
occurrence of a particular stimulus
Sensory Processes
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Four Possibilities in Judging the Presence or
Absence of a Stimulus
Does the patient have a
tumor?
Do I think the
patient has a
tumor?
Sensory Processes
Yes
No
Yes
HIT
False alarm
No
Miss
CORRECT
REJECTION
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Different ‘pay-off’ conditions, can manipulate
peoples responses to signal detection…
Sensory Processes
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Vision
This section covers:
▪ The physical stimulus for vision
▪ Visual pathways, anatomy of the eye
▪ Perception
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
The Visual Stimulus – Light
Light travels in waves with two important
properties
▪ Wavelength, perceived as color
▪ Amplitude, perceived as brightness
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Visible Light
The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from
cosmic rays, through x-rays and ultraviolet light,
to TV and radio waves
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Visual Pathways
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
The Anatomy of the Eye
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
How do we replicate the visual stimulus?
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Transduction of Light by Photoreceptors
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Photoreceptors: Rods and Cones
Rods – for viewing dim light with no color
Cones – for bright light with color
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision
Perception of color
is based on the
response rates of
three kinds of cones
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Opponent-Process Theory of Color Vision
Proposes the existence of “opposing” red-green,
blue-yellow, and black-white channels
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Colorblindness: problems in the cones
• Monochromats -total color blindness (black-and-white). This color
blindness is rare and results from individuals having only rods or only
one kind of functioning cone (instead of three).
• Dichromats- have trouble distinguishing red from green. They have
just two kinds of functioning cones instead of three.
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Motion after effect
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0JVJsPpg1-8
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Motion after effect
Visual neurons coding a particular movement get
tired and reduce responses with exposure to a
constantly moving stimulus; this is neural adaptation.
Neural adaptation reduces spontaneous, baseline
activity of the same neurons when responding to a
stationary stimulus. The stationary stimulus (your
hand) appears to move in the opposite direction as
the neurons that responded to original direction of
motion are fatigued and their firing rates drop below
baseline confusing our brains!
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Hearing/ Audition
This section covers:
▪ The physical stimulus for hearing
▪ The anatomy of the ear
▪ Types of deafness
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
The Sound Stimulus – Sound Waves
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
The Sound Stimulus – Sound Waves
Sound waves have different amplitudes and
frequencies
▪ Amplitude is encoded as loudness or intensity
▪ Frequency is encoded as pitch
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Ranges of Hearing
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
The Anatomy of the Outer, Middle, and Inner Ear
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
The Cochlea
Vibrations in
the ossicles
Vision
Waves in the
vestibular
canal fluid
Movement
of hair cells
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
A closer looks at the Hair cells
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Sound localization
The TIMING and
INTENSITY in
which the physical
aspects of sound
hit the two cochlea
allows the person
or animal to detect
the location of the
sound in the
environment
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Auditory Pathways
Auditory
Nerve
Vision
Medulla
Midbrain
Thalamus
Temporal
Lobe
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Exposure to Sound
Loudness of sound is
measured in decibels
▪ A whisper: ~ 20 dB
▪ Normal conversation:
~ 60 dB
▪ iPod with standard
earbuds: 100 dB
▪ Threshold of pain:
130 dB
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Cochlear Implants
Bypass hair cells and
stimulate the auditory
nerves directly. Formerly
deaf persons may be able
to hear human voices,
music, and other higherfrequency sounds with
these implants. Some
deaf children even can
learn to speak.
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Chemical and Mechanical Senses
This section covers:
▪ Somatosensation
▪ Vestibular senses
▪ Smell- olfaction
▪ Taste- gustation
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Somatosensation
Bodily sensations
(touch, pressure,
temperature and
pain) coming
from skin,
muscles, and
joints are
processed by the
somatosensory
system.
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Receptors for Touch, Temperature, and Pain
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
2-point discrimination and the Homunculus
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Vestibular system
Being able to perceive how the different
parts of your body are positioned.
Part of the inner ear are sensitive to
position, acceleration, and rotational
movements
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Vestibular Sense – The Inner Ear
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
The Inner Ear Anatomy and Balance
Sense of balance: fluid in the inner ear
Semicircular canal – responds to
rotational movement of head
Vestibular sacs (saccules or otolith
organs)- fluid filled sacs sensitive to
movement acceleration, gravity
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Olfaction…the sense of smell
The Human can
detect up to ….
wait for it…1 Trillion
odors!
http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2014/03/humannose-can-detect-trillion-smells
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Olfactory System
Olfactory
receptors
Vision
Olfactory
Bulb
Frontal
Lobe
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Gustation…the sense of Taste
▪ The 5 or 6?
Qualities of Taste
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
Vision
Bitterness
Sourness
Sweetness
Saltiness
Umami
FAT?
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Gustatory
System
(taste)
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Taste continued….
Old idea
now shown
to be
incorrect….
Vision
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Ch. 8: The Adaptive Mind: Learning
This section covers:
▪ Three types of
responses to stimuli
▪ Three types of learning
LEARNING
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Reflexes
Simple, involuntary responses to stimuli. Not
learned.
Responding to Our Environment
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Instincts
Complex, inborn patterns of behavior
elicited by environmental stimuli.
Also, not learned.
Responding to Our Environment
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior or
the capacity for behavior that occurs due to
experience
A simple (and favorite) definition:
Experience dependent change.
Responding to Our Environment
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Nonassociative Learning
Habituation
Responding to Our Environment
Sensitization
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Nonassociative Learning (single stimulus
learning)
Habituation- reduced response to repeated
presentation of a stimulus. (living by March ARB)
Sensitization-increased response to repeated
presentation of a stimulus. (going to Knott’s Scary
Farm)
Responding to Our Environment
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Associative Learning
Occurs when we form connections among stimuli
and/or behaviors (the learning of
associations….fire trucks are red, school busses
are yellow)
▪ AKA Classical conditioning.
Responding to Our Environment
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Classical Conditioning
This section covers:
▪ Principles, phenomena, and applications of
classical conditioning
LEARNING
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Classical Conditioning/Associative Learning/
Pavlovian Conditioning.
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). Russian Physiologist
Studying Digestion.
By observing dogs during the digestion process,
Pavlov formulated his theory of classical
conditioning
Classical Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Pavlov’s Procedure
While conducting other experiments, he noticed that
near feeding time, the dogs would start to salivate
BEFORE food was given.
They would salivate simply by the sight of the person in
the white coat entering the room
Pavlov began to understand that the animal had learned
an ASSOCIATION between the food (something that
would naturally cause a response) and the feeder
person (something that would NOT naturally cause the
response)
Classical Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Pavlov’s Procedure
He then took this observation to the next level and
designed an experiment where he “paired”
something with the food…something that is NO
WAY on its own would cause a salivation
response….a bell (it was really a metronome)
Classical Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Pavlov’s Procedure
Classical Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Classical Conditioning Terms
Term
Abbreviation Definition
Unconditioned stimulus
US
A stimulus that naturally and reliably evokes a
response
Unconditioned response
UR
The response that is naturally and reliably
elicited by the unconditioned stimulus
Neutral stimulus
NS
A stimulus that does not initially elicit the
unconditioned response
Conditioned stimulus
CS
A stimulus that was once neutral but, through
association with the US, now elicits a response
Conditioned response
CR
After conditioning has occurred, the response
that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus
Classical Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Conditions Required for Pavlovian Learning
Temporal Contiguity – closeness in time between pairs of
events is important for learning to occur. Delayed conditioning is
best for learning
Classical Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Classical Conditioning from the Eyes of Pavlov’s
Dog
Classical Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Classical Conditioning Outside the Lab
Classical Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Taste Aversion
One trial learning….you learn this CS-US
association quickly….and stimulus generalization
Classical Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Classical Conditioning Application: Aversion
Therapy
Conditioning a taste aversion to alcohol
▪ Pair alcohol with drug that produces nausea
Classical Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Operant Conditioning
This section covers:
▪ Principles, phenomena, and applications of operant
conditioning
LEARNING
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Thorndike’s Law of Effect: the early days of OC
Law of Effect – Thorndike’s idea was that the
consequences of a behavior determine whether the
behavior is likely to be repeated
Used puzzle boxes to test his theories
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
What’s a puzzle box?
A box with levers and doors…escape being reward
Used with cats to see how reward or no reward for
behavior increased or decreased the probability of the
behavior occurring again
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Thorndike’s puzzle box
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BDujDOLre-8
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Quick Check: Comparison of Pavlov’s and
Thorndike’s Ideas…
Pavlov’s procedure led to the animal learning an
ASSOCIATION between 2 stimuli (food and bell).
Response was secondary (because it occurred with
both)
Thorndike’s procedure led the animal to learn which
behaviors would lead to reward, and thus this learning
directly affected the animal’s response
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Quick Check: Comparison of Pavlov’s and
Thorndike’s Ideas…
Thus, Pavlov was the father of associative, or
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Thorndike was the father of reinforcement-based, or
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
The Skinner Box and Behaviorism
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) proposed that the
consequences of a behavior are critical for
learning (operant conditioning)
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Reinforcement determines whether you do a
behavior again…
Operant conditioning procedure
▪ Reinforcement TYPES
Positive reinforcement: something DELIVERED that
occurs after the behavior to increase the chance
behavior will occur again
Negative reinforcement: something TAKEN AWAY that
occurs after the behavior to increase the chance
behavior will occur again
Reward: a form of Positive reinforcement
Punishment: NOT NEG REINFORCEMENT: something
DELIVERED that occurs after the behavior to
DECREASE the chance behavior will occur again
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Skinner and Operant Conditioning
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Consequences of Conditioning (more details)
Add a good stimulus (reward) to one’s
environment (“positive” reinforcement), or
remove a bad stimulus (“negative”
reinforcement).
Either way, this can lead to an increase in the
behavior (“reinforcement”)
Punishment: Add a BAD stimulus (punisher) with
the idea that the behavior will then go away or at
least decrease.
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Positive Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Case Study: Token Economies
Offer effective rewards are no-value tokens that
can be exchanged for something valuable
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Negative Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Punishment
It only works if certain conditions are met
The punishment must be consistent and/or
severe.
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Negative Side-Effects of Punishment
* Risk of injury
* Inducement of fear and hostility, or anger…
* Organisms learn only which response not to make
* Punishment does not teach the organism desirable
responses, or what to do.
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Schedules of Reinforcement
▪ Ratio or interval
▪ Fixed or variable
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Procedures that manipulate the relationship
between stimuli, responses, and reinforcers
▪ Ratio schedules – reinforcer is dependent on the
occurrence of a number of responses
• Fixed or variable
▪ Interval schedules – reinforcer is dependent on the
passage of time before the response is effective
• Fixed or variable
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Fixed Ratio Schedules
In the garment industry, workers are often paid
“by the piece”. 10 cents for each piece sewn
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Variable Ratio Schedules
Checking your cell phone for a new text can be a
kind of variable ratio schedule
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Variable Ratio Schedules
The most classic VR schedule is the slot
machine…Why do you think?
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Fixed Interval Schedules
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Variable Interval Schedules
Fish (the reinforcers) are caught after periods of
waiting for fish to bite that vary in length
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Effects of Reinforcement Schedules
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
The Process of Learning
Acquisition
Extinction
Shaping
Negative side effects of punishment
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Acquisition
This is the learning of a response… or learning
not to respond
For example, recall Habituation: learning to NOT
respond to an unimportant event that occurs
repeatedly
Natural selection and learning: does the ability
to learn improve an animal’s fitness?
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Extinction
Learned behaviors stop
when they are no longer
followed by a reinforcing
consequence.
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Extinction
When a response that was previously
reinforced is no longer reinforced, resulting
in a weakened behavior
▪ Intermittent reinforcement – increases the
resistance to the effects of extinction
▪ Spontaneous recovery – increase in a
previously extinguished response after the
passing of time
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Shaping
progressive learning in steps
Operant Conditioning
© 2016 Cengage Learning.
Video Clips…
The office…clip…conditioning
Lost….clip…conditioning
Which clip shows an example of CC and which
shows an example of O…
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