CC Generalizations in Cultural Profiles Produce Stereotypes of Cultures Discussion Please answer 2 out of the 3 questions. Q1. Many people in the world un

CC Generalizations in Cultural Profiles Produce Stereotypes of Cultures Discussion Please answer 2 out of the 3 questions.

Q1. Many people in the world understand and relate to others only in terms of their own culture (i.e., self-reference criterion). Moreover, many people forget that generalizations in cultural profiles will produce stereotypes of cultures. Please discuss these two issues based on “Do Muslim Women Really Need Saving” OR “Images.”

Q2. Samuel R. Huntington argued that “interaction” and “borrowing” between civilizations have always taken place. Please support his view by providing examples based on “McDonald’s in Japan: Changing manners and etiquette.”

Q3. “When entering a country inquire of its customs. When crossing a border inquire of the prohibitions” (Li Chi 1971: 17). Please discuss the importance of market research for doing global marketing based on “International Marketing Blunders by American Firms in Japan.”

For “each” answer, please limit it to one page (single-spaced; 12 point font; 1′ margin).

In other words, your two answers together should not go over two pages. International Marketing Blunders by American Firms in Japan: Some Lessons for
Management
Author(s): Gary A. Knight
Source: Journal of International Marketing, Vol. 3, No. 4 (1995), pp. 107-129
Published by: American Marketing Association
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Educator
Insights:
International
Blunders
Marketing
in Japan?Some
Firms
American
Lessons
by
for Management
cases of marketing
com
This article investigates
blunders
separate
are
in
mitted
multinationals
Examined
Japan.
by prominent
Avon Cosmetics,
General Mills,
Simmons
Procter
and
Mattress,
Ford Motor,
and Chrysler. A pattern
General Motors,
Gamble,
of
is revealed
to all. This pat
blunders
that is common
fundamental
are discussed
tern and the lessons
it suggests for management
in
are
on
can best
detail. Suggestions
how marketing
blunders
offered
mar
in general,
to sell in international
be avoided,
by firms seeking
ABSTRACT
kets.
This
failures
of prominent
marketing
on
com
in Japan.
It is based
firms
actual blunders
over the last 30 years. Most
these companies
popular
article
American
mitted
by
business
because
seeking
addresses
on firm
concentrate
in part
successes,
writings
is
such
information
from companies
available
readily
success
are
But
stories
unless
positive
publicity.
truly
extraordinary, they tend to be forgotten and consequently,
of value
nies
Gary A. Knight
is learned.
commit
is useful
the mistakes
Indeed,
studying
because
of the
little
that compa
that
lessons
invaluable
in dozens
such cases
(1983) has uncovered
emerge. Ricks
many
mar
in areas such as packaging,
of foreign markets
translation,
ket research,
and especially
of the “four
regarding
adaptation
Ps” of marketing
strategy?product,
distribution/place,
pricing,
and promotion.
Similarly, the focus of the present study is on international
marketing. Because it is the conduit through which the firm
interacts with its world, and because it is the function over
which
local managers
keting, when handled
success
factor
objective
abroad
of
to see what
have
usually
skillfully,
the greatest
for companies
operating
is to examine
this article
can
be
control,
is perhaps the most
in foreign
mar
important
markets.
The
mistakes
marketing
in the hope
that interna
learned,
firms today can avoid
tionalizing
in the past.
others
plagued
the problems
that have
Submitted
In this
variety
company
study,
of product
types
more egregious
examples
ventures
and
cases
were
chosen
representing
of marketing
that
a
reflect
some
of
the
blunders by American
December
Revised March
1994
1995
? Journal of International
Marketing
Vol. 3, No. 4, 1995, pp. 107-129
ISSN 1069-03IX
107
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in Japan.
firms
Prominent
they tend to be more
on
information
were
and
articles
newspaper
views with
executives
was
effort
and,
histories,
possible,
involved with
Data
journal
inter
through
the cited firms. Every
to verify
the accuracy
sources
used wherever
multiple
made
with
detailed
available.
readily
company
when
because
chosen
and because
is more
firms
larger
from published
obtained
were
companies
active overseas
of
information
The
possible.
Mills,
Cosmetics,
companies
Simmons
Procter
and Gamble,
General
the
Mattress,
Motors,
Ford Motor
and Chrysler.
The last three firms were
Company,
as “the Big Three”
treated
automakers.
These
collectively
reported,
chosen
were
a cross
represent
companies
dling a variety of product
are
firms
all American
section
of multinationals
han
types. Itmust be noted
and,
the
States?including
ket?are
often
Avon
General
large
as
size
in
conditions
of
the U.S.
different
mar
domestic
from
in other
those
substantially
lessons
drawn
from U.S.
firm experiences
countries,
to the needs
be consistently
relevant
of companies
countries.
the
Nevertheless,
examples
presented
are
encountered
and
problems
generic,
relatively
are
that these
the United
may not
in other
and
the
the
lessons
that
emerge
firms in most
fundamental?they
markets
around
the world.
emphasized
that the focus of this article is on the marketing
of consumer
goods.
for consumer
goods
Given
may
to most
should
apply
it must
Moreover,
be
that the marketing
requirements
be substantially
different
from
those
of industrial goods (e.g., Campbell and Cunningham
1983;
Hakansson
1982), the findings of this article should be
viewed
accordingly.
a culture
chosen
it possesses
because
Japan was
are
in the extreme
infrastructure
that
different
most
other
countries,
Moreover,
examples.
it in Japan can make
thereby
it is often
and business
from
numerous
providing
said that firms which
those
of
salient
can make
it anywhere.
the article
should
Therefore,
universal
suggestions
provide
having
application.
Finally,
in the world
market
and
Japan is the second
largest consumer
to any company
should
be of interest
to expand
over
about
seas.
The
article
starts
off with
case
of some
histories
of the more
infamous
blunders
in Japan.
firms
marketing
by American
cases
are examined
for common
of
patterns
marketing
It then concludes
an extensive
failure.
with
treatment
of man
These
agerially relevant
mental
around
to success
implications
in not
only
that, it is believed,
Japan,
but
in most
are funda
countries
the world.
108
Gary A. Knight
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As
the U.S.
for cake mixes
market
to mature
began
in the early
1960s, General Mills, the originator of Betty Crocker brand
cakes, turned its attention to Japan.With its standard of living
rising rapidly and displaying a penchant forWestern goods,
a logical
target. Moreover,
never made
the Japanese
Japan seemed
revealed
that
research
early market
at home?they
cakes
Cases
General
Mills1
always bought them from bakeries and sales of Western-style
cakes were on the rise. This fact suggested the emergence of an
for General Mills to make a killing in Japan’s
opportunity
huge, family-oriented market.
There
was,
one major
however,
come: the vast majority
General
Mills
were
wives
technical
had no oven.
of Japanese households
this as the
perceived
to
obliged
buy expensive
to over
problem
reason
house
Japanese
cakes?they
ready-made
simply had no way of preparing them at home. Management
assumed that the devoted mother and wife might therefore
find great pleasure
in making her own cakes and, in the
save money
process,
for her
to over
around
Searching
family.
come the technical impasse, General Mills hit upon the one
appliance found in every Japanese kitchen: the electric rice
cooker.
oped
set to work
the company
and soon devel
Immediately,
a cake mix
In sub
in the rice cooker.
that could be used
sequent
test
resulting
cake
marketing,
very
housewives
Japanese
ratings.
high
After
the
gave
the
naming
product
“Cakeron” (aWestern sounding name intended to distinguish
the cake from local brands), General Mills thereupon launched
it in Japan.
stocked up on Cakeron and all
At first, local retailers quickly
new
to go well.
However,
was
not
getting
product
wife
was
it soon
seemed
stage, well
duct
attempt
were
every
resisting
clearly
became
sales.
repeat
the Cakeron
concept.
into the launch, that General Mills
group
to unravel
with
sessions
focus
Japanese
It was
decided
to con
leftover
rice
is often
stored
in the cooker.
to bake
Second,
is also
not only
considered
bolic
qualities
years.
Newly
cakes
proved
is rice
food,
rice may
often had
using the
of the Japanese
numerous
possessing
staple
that date back
and traditions
cooked
that
inconvenient.
the main
a sacred
enough
not being
This meant
the rice cooker in the typical Japanese household
rice in it throughout the entire day. Consequently,
device
in an
makes
rice at one time to last through three meals. When
used,
at this
Two major problems
eaten
at
rice is often
going wrong.
in Japan,
First,
the housewife
usually
revealed.
quickly
meal
and hence,
the
house
consumers
Japanese
was
what
that
apparent
The
be
seen
as reflecting
it
diet,
sym
thousands
the core
of
of
itself: pure and unadulterated by things
Japanese civilization
For
the
average housewife, the daily cooking of rice is
foreign.
like an age-old
Educator
American
ritual,
sacred
and purely
Insights: International
Firms in Japan?Some
Japanese.
Thus,
prob
Blunders
Marketing
by
Lessons for Management
109
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lems
wives
arose when,
discovered
either
in the process
of preparing
house
Cakeron,
a
that the mix
could
leave
of
cakey aftertaste
or vanilla
in their
sacrosanct
cooker.
chocolate
homemakers
Consequently,
as
a
contaminator
product
the
compared
the new
Japan rejected
one
rice. Later,
pundit
a
in
cake
her
rice
making
throughout
of the sacred
of a Japanese
act
cooker to that of an English housewife
teapot?it
realized
isn’t
simply
its error
done.
and withdrew
(Fields 1983; Fortune
market
coffee in her
making
a result,
Cakeron
As
General
Mills
from
the
soon
Japanese
1981).
In the 1990s, Betty Crocker
is still relatively
in
unknown
a General
Mills
official
that the com
Japan. Indeed,
reported
a
which
of
also
offers
broad
line
breakfast
has no
cereals,
pany,
sales force and no formal operations
there. Its Japan presence
is limited to indirect exporting via local distributors.
At
Avon
Cosmetics
various
marketer
has been
the largest manufacturer
and
times, Avon
in the world.
of cosmetics
The company
first entered
in 1969.
Japan
its first
During
four years
there, Avon
not
could
turn a profit. This was partly the result of failing to adapt its
to the needs
and product
of the Japanese
offerings
was
To begin with,
when
the Japan subsidiary
first
a
was
in
sales
force
the
traditional
Avon
established,
organized
marketing
market.
way
other
sales
so well
that had worked
in which
countries
by
local,
commissioned
average
to total
and in the dozen
business:
door-to-door
housewives.
soon
this approach
housewife
Japanese
However,
in America
firm did
the
fell apart because,
is very reluctant
Japan is a crowded
first of all,
the
to sell
products
and the
Second,
strangers.
place
a private
is considered
home
is unusual
for
refuge?it
to
same
in
into
their
homes
the
strangers
way
accept
Japanese
are welcomed
are
Avon
in the West.
ladies
Japanese
Finally,
characteristically
encounter
be
may
or seller?will
buyer
Therefore,
the Avon
timid
with
fraught
lose
with
lady
face
such
any
of the parties?
embarrassment.
and
strangers,
fear that one
or suffer
in Japan
some
proved
less
aggressive
and
less outgoing than her counterpart in the West (Consiglio
1992; Kraar 1976). This basic difference in culture almost led
to Avon’s
over
the company
Eventually,
came the problem
as
each saleswoman’s
by assigning
territory
a milieu
her own neighborhood
and social group,
in which
she
or could
knew
her customers
them easily
get to know
already
undoing
in Japan.
1992; Kraar 1976; Salmans
(Consiglio
in Japan reports
that modifying
to conform
in
this
way
tory strategy
ager
social
cess
ness
then-man
1979). Avon’s
the company’s
sales terri
with
of
local standards
a
suc
large part in the firm’s ultimate
played
in Japan (Hemus
the innate shy
1984). To help overcome
of sales people,
Avon
class”
began
offering
large “beauty
behavior
110
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Gary A. Knight
meetings, where it dispensed product information and pep
talks (Kraar 1976). The firm also tried other approaches to dis
tribution such as direct marketing and direct mail – innova
tions
not
previously
in Avon’s
applied
other
which
markets
helped the company further penetrate Japan’s complex con
sumer market (Consiglio 1992; Hemus 1984; Holden 1990).
At the outset in 1969, Avon attempted to launch its dominant
range of products that enjoyed high popularity in the United
States.
These
were
fragrances,
make-up,
costume
and gift
products,
jewelry,
at the time, nearly
85 percent
However,
care
Japan was dominated
by
up, and hair care (Hemus
just three
1984).
skin
bath
additives,
decorative
and
of cosmetic
skin
categories:
while
Fragrance,
items.
in
sales
care, make
a huge busi
ness in the West, holds little appeal for the average Japanese.
There are several reasons for this, which, if Avon had done its
would
homework,
have
surely
surfaced.
First,
Japanese
usually do not approve of their wives wearing
negative
who wear
perfume
hostesses,
is an intensely
Under
in Japan
the women
Indeed,
are often
associated
with
the “night busi
and the like. Second,
prostitutes,
Japan
for them.
connotations
ness”?bar
these
humid
a scent
scents
Third,
are just as likely to offend
have
own
their
set of tastes
strong,
overly
to Avon,
find strong
to women
that appeal
in the East;
Japanese
(Salmans
1979). To counter
extensive
local market
Avon
conducted
problems,
in R&D.
and invested
research
heavily
these
of the year.
become
may
unbeknownst
evidently
Japanese,
scents a bit overwhelming.
women
and hot much
country,
conditions,
and
in the West
perfume;
men
it has
These
approaches
pro
duced a line of seasonally oriented products much more
tune with local needs (Salmans 1979; Hemus 1984).
Another
households,
most
for Avon was
misfire
follows
bathing
In Japanese
bath additives.
an age-old
In short,
ritual.
in
while
Japanese bathe everyday, the tub is not used forwashing;
it is used
for relaxing.
Bath
water
is constantly
retained
at a
high temperature, with family members taking their turn in the
tub or bathing together with small children. As part of the rit
washes
before
the
ual, each
family member
entering
always
tub. As the same water
is eventually
shared by all, it is consid
ered unacceptable
to use soap, shampoo,
and other such addi
tives in the tub. This practice
culture that the fact that Avon
product
indicates
a failure
is so ingrained in Japanese
attempted to launch such a
of market
research.
In the West,
is sometimes
Avon
with
associated
prices
popular
that offer good value
for the customer’s
money.
pricing
Popular
has worked
of its markets
But
well
in many
around
the world.
not
in Japan. For
market
share,
ing
Japanese
Educator
American
offerings.
in the past, with
example,
Avon
has lowered
prices
Simon
Hemus,
Insights: International
Firms in Japan?Some
the firm’s
a view
on
to increas
some
of its key
former marketing
Blunders
Marketing
by
Lessons for Management
111
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in Tokyo, reported that this approach had exactly the
were
effect?sales
of its intended
negatively
manager
opposite
Later
impacted.
that
revealed
research
the
are very
Japanese
attuned to product quality and are willing to pay dearly for it.
Whenever they encounter a good whose price is significantly
assume
the
the Japanese
items,
usually
competing
so
brands
with
is
other
Thus,
many
poor.
higher-priced
quality
on the market,
because
Avon’s
suffered.
Moreover,
image
a
the
last
long-term
image
long time,
company’s
impressions
to
its
Avon
hurt as well.
raised
sales were
prices
subsequently
lower
than
bring them more in line with
through painstaking
Ultimately,
Japan, capturing
ket. However,
local company
Mattress
a three percent
share of the total mar
by 1989
to a
in 1990,
its Japan business
the firm sold
(Holden 1990).
Mattress
substantial
company
enjoys
currently
in Japan, but it wasn’t
this
the
way. Historically,
always
in a room
that
had always
Japanese
slept on futons,
usually
The
Simmons
the firm’s desired
image.
effort, Avon did succeed in
Simmons
sales
as living quarters by day. Undeterred
doubled
Simmons
the Far East’s
sensed
to begin making
so, back in 1964, the firm decided
its beds,
and
mattresses,
by this fact,
to Westernization;
trend
boxsprings
in Japan.
and
and selling
Unfortunately,
by 1967 Simmons found itself in trouble with the government,
and had not yet turned a profit (Sales Management 1967).
The first problem was
less
than
expected.
are based
ing modes
By 1967,
fewer
that demand
than
in Japan turned out to be
one
For
like sleep
habits
thing,
ingrained
in culture
and hence,
very slowly.
change
on
15 percent
of Japanese were
sleeping
Western style beds (Sales Management
1967). Additionally,
rooms in typical Japanese houses are usually not big enough to
Western
style
large-sized
in the small
apartments
accommodate
comfortably
was much
worse
situation
the vast majority
ure to adequately
Far East
Other
lived
in the 1960s.
recognize
these
conditions
arose
in sales
Japanese
as wa.
fail
its
killed
nearly
the intense
desire
and
in
In Japan
bed manufacturers
distribution.
domestic
in ways
suppliers
other through a deeply
on and
Simmons
a small market.
As with
already
firms were
these
allied
closely
retailers and distributors
access.
and
a dozen
about
for what was
competing
other
industries
there,
eign
in which
business.
problems
there were
1967,
of Japanese
The
beds.
that virtually
with
excluded
are bound
retailers
most
for
to each
imbedded sense of obligation known as
to maintain
societal
a Japanese
to switch
on and wa is to incur
For
harmony,
in a manner
suppliers
great dishonor
regards
owners
ment.
of Western-style
Thus,
hotels,
almost
their
business
gave
housing
always
112
and
known
that dis
embarrass
or other
condos,
to the compatriot
Gary A. Knight
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to whom
supplier
no matter
a favor,
owed
they
Simmons
what
offered (Ricks 1983; Sales Management
1967). This impasse
was further complicated
in the 1960s by escalating Japanese
fears
an
of
Simmons
time
invasion
by Western
became
activities
sales
the Japanese
manufacturers.
Indeed,
so aggressive
that for some
sanctions
the
considered
against
government
1967; Train 1981).
firm (Sales Management
Simmons had no choice but to create its own
Consequently,
In the beginning,
the company hired and
sales channels.
a
trained
However,
clear only
none
sales
force
sales
failed
several
of the
into
weeks
salesmen
men.
eight
Japanese
for reasons
that became
of
consisting
to materialize
the new
It seems
program.
to the benefits
attest
could
that
of Simmons
products because none had ever slept in aWestern style bed
(Ricks 1983; Sales Management 1967; Train 1981). In amarket
where people had had a particular sleeping mode for thou
sands
of years,
Once
was
this
problem
to Japan’s
stric…
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