Northeastern University Stakeholder Management in Project Management Paper Stakeholder management in project management Overview and Rationale For thi

Northeastern University Stakeholder Management in Project Management Paper Stakeholder management in project management

Overview and Rationale

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For this assignment, you will utilize peer reviewed articles to write a research paper discussing the benefits of conducting lessons learned, applying the learning outcomes to future project management plans, and the various roles stakeholder may play in the lessons learned process.

Program and Course Outcomes

The following learning objectives are addressed through this assignment:

LO6-Critically analyze the learning experiences, outcomes, materials, personal assumptions, and biases to find meaningful interconnections and form novel perspectives

Essential Components

For this assignment, you are to write a minimum of four pages discussing the benefits of conducting lessons learned and applying the learning outcomes to future project management plans. To do well on this paper, you need to:

Provide an overview of how, and when to conduct lessons learned.

Examine the benefits of conducting lessons learned.

Provide examples of how to effectively prepare or apply the lessons learned to future project management plans.

Provide information on the different roles stakeholders play in the lessons learned process.

Identify three stakeholder groups and discuss how you would implement lessons learned sessions for each group for the TAPF project. Then explain how you will use the outcomes from the sessions in future TAPF projects.

The paper should follow the following format:

Title Page (Include your name, course, date, assignment title)
Body (4-6 pages)
Reference Page (All citations and references must follow APA 6th edition)
APA formatting, double spaced, times new roman, 12-point font
Direct quotes should account for no more than 15 percent of paper (i.e. use direct quotes sparingly)

The paper should follow the below guidelines:

Paper should cite a minimum of three peer-reviewed sources (textbooks do not count as a peer-reviewed source in this assignment)

Paper should be no less than 4 pages and no more than 6 pages in length (this is the body of the paper, and it does not include the title page or reference page Essential Environment: The Science Behind the Stories
Sixth Edition
Chapter 9
Forests, Forest Management,
and Protected Areas
Lecture Presentations prepared by
James Dauray
College of Lake County
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
This lecture will help you understand:
• Ecological and economic contributions of forests
• History and current scale of deforestation
• Resource management, methods of harvesting timber, and
aspects of forest management
• Federal land management agencies
• Types of parks and protected areas
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Central Case Study: Saving the World’s
Greatest Rainforest (1 of 4)
• The Amazon rainforest captures water, regulates climate,
is very biodiverse, and absorbs carbon dioxide while
releasing oxygen.
– One-fifth of the rainforest area has been lost over the
past 50 years.
• Brazil is pushing into the Amazon basin to relieve crowding
and poverty in its cities.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Central Case Study: Saving the World’s
Greatest Rainforest (2 of 4)
• Rising demand for soy, sugar, corn, and palm oil and the
growth of cattle ranching in the area have fueled further
destruction of the rainforest.
Figure 9.1 Large areas of Amazon rainforest have been cleared for cattle ranching and
soybean farming.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Central Case Study: Saving the World’s
Greatest Rainforest (3 of 4)
• The consequences of the loss of
the rainforest are diverse:
– Loss of biodiversity
– Increased death rates in
indigenous peoples due to
introduced diseases and loss
of land
– Acceleration of global climate
change
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Central Case Study: Saving the World’s
Greatest Rainforest (4 of 4)
• In response, Brazil
strengthened its Forest
Code, now mandating that
landowners in the Amazon
conserve 80% of their land
as forest and other rural
landowners conserve 20%.
Figure 9.2 Annual forest loss has slowed in the
Brazilian Amazon.
• Purchasers of agricultural
products have either
demanded sustainably
grown products or put a
moratorium on new
production.
• Since 2004, deforestation
rates have fallen sharply.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Forest Ecosystems and Forest Resources
• A forest is any ecosystem with a high density of trees.
• Forest biomes include boreal forest, tropical rainforest,
temperate deciduous forests, temperate rainforests, and
tropical dry forests.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
There are many types of forests (1 of 2)
• Within each forest biome, differences in soil and climate
will alter the community.
• Forest types are classifications of forests based on their
predominant tree species.
Figure 9.3 This maple-birch-beech forest from the Upper Peninsula of Michigan belongs to 1 of 23
forest types found in the continental United States.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
There are many types of forests (2 of 2)
• Altogether, forests cover 31% of Earth’s land surface.
Figure 9.4 Forests cover 31% of Earth’s land surface.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Forests are ecologically complex (1 of 3)
• Forests are structurally complex, with each level providing niches for
many different organisms.
• The canopy is the upper level of leaves and branches in the treetops.
Figure 9.5 A mature forest is complex in its structure.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Forests are ecologically complex (2 of 3)
• The subcanopy is the middle portion of the forest, found
beneath the tree crowns of the canopy.
• The shaded lower level consisting of shrubs and small
trees is the understory.
• The forest floor contains groundcover plants.
Figure 9.5 A mature forest is complex in its structure.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Forests are ecologically complex (3 of 3)
• Dead and dying trees, called snags, are homes for
insects, which in turn provide food sources for birds.
• Fallen trees create openings called treefall gaps, areas
where sunlight encourages the growth of early
successional plants.
Figure 9.5 A mature forest is complex in its structure.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Forests provide ecosystem services (1 of 2)
• Tree roots stabilize soil and
draw up minerals from deep
soil layers.
• Leaves and leaf litter slow
runoff by intercepting water,
increasing water infiltration
into soil and aquifers.
Figure 9.6 A forest provides us with a diversity of
ecosystem services, as well as resources that we can
harvest.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Forests provide ecosystem services (2 of 2)
• Forest plants filter pollution,
take in carbon dioxide, and
produce oxygen that we
breathe.
• Forests also provide cultural,
aesthetic, and recreation
values to people.
Figure 9.6 A forest provides us with a diversity of
ecosystem services, as well as resources that we can
harvest.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Forests provide us valuable resources
• Forests also contain plants we use for medicines and
dyes; animals, plants, and fungi for food; and wood from
the trees themselves.
• Industrial harvesting has increased our ability to extract
timber, with most of it coming from countries with boreal
forests like Canada and Russia or rainforests such as
Brazil or Indonesia.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Forest Loss
• Deforestation is the clearing of forests more quickly than
they can regrow.
– Deforestation leads to biodiversity loss, soil
degradation, and desertification, as well as contributing
to climate change.
• Satellite analysis conducted by the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) of the United Nations concluded that
we are eliminating 7.6 million hectares of forest each year.
– Accounting for regrowth, that is an annual net loss of
3.3 million hectares.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Agriculture and demand for wood put pressure on
forests
• The growing human population and its demand for timber
and agricultural land have spurred further deforestation.
• In 2015, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
reported that we are losing a net 3.3 million hectares of
forest per year.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
We deforested much of North America (1 of 2)
• Heavy deforestation through the mid-1800s in North
America has resulted in very little primary forest being left
behind.
– Primary forest is natural forest left uncut by people.
Figure 9.7 Areas of primary (uncut) forest have been dramatically reduced.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
We deforested much of North America (2 of 2)
• Most of the trees in today’s forests are ones that have
sprouted and grown to partial maturity since the old-growth
trees were cut.
– These forests are called secondary forests and may
have a very different species composition, structure,
and nutrient balance.
Figure 9.7 Areas of primary (uncut) forest have been dramatically reduced.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Forests today are cleared most rapidly in developing
nations (1 of 5)
• Uncut primary forests still remain in many developing
countries, but are being harvested much more rapidly due
to powerful industrial technologies.
– The deforestation is spurred by a desire to expand
human settlements, boost economic growth, and
provide fuelwood for heating and cooking needs.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Forests today are cleared most rapidly in developing
nations (2 of 5)
• In contrast, parts of Europe and the United States are
gaining forest as they recover from past deforestation.
Figure 9.8 Tropical forests are being lost.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Forests today are cleared most rapidly in developing
nations (3 of 5)
• Brazil is a good example of deforestation, as it has lost
forests rapidly as a result of expanding soybean farming,
cattle ranching, and settlement.
Figure 9.9 Deforestation of Amazonian rainforest has been rapid.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Forests today are cleared most rapidly in developing
nations (4 of 5)
• Developing nations may allow their timber to be extracted
by large multinational corporations, who pay them fees
called concessions.
– The timber is then exported to wealthier nations.
• Concessions often lead to short-term economic benefits,
but many environmental consequences for the developing
nations.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Forests today are cleared most rapidly in developing
nations (5 of 5)
• In Southeast Asia, swaths
of tropical rainforest are
being cut to establish palm
oil plantations.
– Palm oil is used as a
biofuel and is also found
in many processed
foods.
Figure 9.10 Oil palm plantations are replacing
primary forest across Southeast Asia and
Indonesia.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Solutions are emerging
• Conservation organizations are pursuing community-based
stewardship projects that empower local people to act as
stewards for their forests.
– Other organizations directly pay concessions to
preserve forested land or offer a debt-for-nature swap.
• Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation (REDD+) is a program where developing
nations are paid concessions by developed countries, who
earn credits to offset their own emissions.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Forest Management
• Forestry is the practice of managing society’s demand for
forests against maintaining them as ecosystems.
– Timber is renewable, as long as it is not exploited too
rapidly.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Resource managers follow several strategies (1 of 3)
• Resource management describes the overall strategy of
managing and regulating the harvest of renewable
resources.
• Resource managers try to determine the maximum
sustainable yield, allowing them to achieve the greatest
amount of resource extraction without depleting the
resource.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Resource managers follow several strategies (2 of 3)
• Achieving maximum sustainable yield usually means a
harvest at about the middle of the logistic growth curve.
• The downside is that the tree population is limited to about
half its normal size.
Figure 9.11 Maximum sustainable yield maximizes the amount of resource harvested while
sustaining the harvest.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Resource managers follow several strategies (3 of 3)
• An alternative system is ecosystem-based management,
where managers try to minimize impacts on the ecosystem
and its processes.
– Protect certain areas of the forest.
– Restore ecologically important habitats.
– Consider patterns at the landscape level.
• This system is difficult to implement because ecosystems
are so complex that scientists often disagree on how to set
it up.
• Adaptive management involves testing different
approaches and trying to improve methods over time.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
We extract timber from private and public lands (1 of 3)
• The United States established and began managing the
national forest as high rates of deforestation gave rise to
fears of a national “timber famine.”
Figure 9.12 U.S. residents enjoy over 250 million ha (600 million acres) of public lands.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
We extract timber from private and public lands (2 of 3)
• Today, almost 90% of the
timber harvesting in the
United States takes place
on private land.
– Timber companies
pursue maximum
sustainable yield to
maximize yearly
profits.
Figure 9.13 In the United States, trees are growing
faster than they are being removed.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
We extract timber from private and public lands (3 of 3)
• The Forest Service sells timber below its own costs,
creating a situation where taxpayers subsidize private
timber harvesting on public land.
– Only about 2% of U.S. forest acreage is harvested for
timber each year.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Plantation forestry has grown (1 of 2)
• Today’s timber industry focuses on monocultures of fastgrowing trees that are all planted at the same time.
– These trees are said to be even-aged, since the trees
are all the same age.
– Stands are cut after a certain number of years, called
the rotation time, and replanted with seedlings.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Plantation forestry has grown (2 of 2)
• Even-aged stands lack the biodiversity and habitat
offerings of regular forests and are highly vulnerable to
pest insects.
• Uneven-aged stands create a mix of ages (and species),
which creates greater structural diversity and more
habitats and is generally more similar to what a national
forest would look like.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
We harvest timber in several ways (1 of 2)
• The simplest method of harvesting is clear-cutting, where
all the trees are cut at once.
– This increases erosion and alters microclimates due to
increased sunlight penetration.
Figure 9.14 Clear-cutting is cost-efficient for timber companies but has ecological consequences.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
We harvest timber in several ways (2 of 2)
• Other approaches include:
– The seed-tree approach, where some seed-producing
trees are left to reseed the harvested area.
– The shelterwood approach, which leaves some mature
trees behind to shelter growing seedlings.
– Selection systems, which maintain uneven-aged
stands by only removing some trees.
• Selection systems are the least cost-effective method.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Fire can help or hurt forests (1 of 2)
• For much of its existence,
the Forest Service
suppressed fire whenever
it broke out.
– Scientists now know
that fire is an
important part of forest
ecology.
– Fire suppression has
also led to an increase
in large, catastrophic
fires.
Figure 9.15 Wildfires have been burning more
acreage across the United States.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Fire can help or hurt forests (2 of 2)
• To reduce fuel loads, protect property, and improve forest
conditions, land management areas will now use
intentionally set, low-intensity fires called prescribed
burns.
Figure 9.16 Prescribed fire helps to promote forest health and prevent larger damaging fires.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Climate change and pest outbreaks are altering
forests (1 of 2)
• Warmer, drier weather has led to outbreaks of fire in the
Amazon, an ecosystem that is not adapted to fire.
• Deforestation can worsen the impacts of climate change,
as transpiration is reduced in the absence of forests,
reducing precipitation in nearby areas.
• An outbreak of the pine bark beetle insect in North America
has killed billions of conifer trees, leaving them as fodder
for fire.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Climate change and pest outbreaks are altering
forests (2 of 2)
• Pine bark beetle outbreaks
have worsened for two
reasons:
– Even-aged plantation
forests have high
numbers of trees that
are at the perfect age
for beetle infestation.
– Milder winters allow the
beetles to overwinter
further
north than usual, and
warmer summers
increase their activity
and feeding rates.
Figure 9.17 Climate change is enabling bark beetles
to destroy vast numbers of trees in North America.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Sustainable forestry is gaining ground
• Organizations such as
the Forest Stewardship
Council (FSC) now
examine practices of
timber companies and
rate them.
Figure 9.18 Logs from trees harvested using certified
sustainable practices are marked with the FSC logo.
• Sustainable forest
certification is granted
to companies whose
methods are judged to
be sustainable.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Parks and Protected Areas (1 of 4)
• The United States created the world’s first national parks
to preserve the American West for nature appreciation and
recreation.
• The National Park Service was created in 1916 to
administer the 408 total parks and monuments.
– The parks receive over 280 million reported recreation
visits per year.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Parks and Protected Areas (2 of 4)
• Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872,
followed by Sequoia, General Grant (now Kings Canyon),
Yosemite, Mount Rainier, and Crater Lake.
Figure 9.19 The awe-inspiring beauty of America’s national parks draws millions of people for
recreation and wildlife-watching.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Parks and Protected Areas (3 of 4)
• Another classification of protected area is the national
wildlife refuge; these areas are meant to be havens for
wildlife.
– The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service administers the
refuges.
– Noncommercial hunting, fishing, photography, and
environmental education are all encouraged at refuges.
• In 1964, the U.S. Congress passed the Wilderness Act,
allowing some federal areas to be designated wilderness
areas.
– These areas are off-limits to development but open to
hiking and other low-impact public recreation.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Parks and Protected Areas (4 of 4)
• Each U.S. state has agencies that manage public lands, as
do counties and municipalities.
– Nearly 7000 state parks are found across the United
States.
• Private nonprofit groups may also purchase land for
preservation, creating land trusts.
– Examples include California’s Big Sur, Jackson Hole in
Wyoming, and Maine’s Mount Desert Island.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Parks and reserves are increasing internationally (1 of 3)
• Worldwide area of protected parks and reserves has
increased nearly sevenfold since 1970.
– Parks in developing countries often do not have the
funding needed to manage them and protect them from
poaching.
– These are called paper parks, because they are
covered on paper but not in reality.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Parks and reserves are increasing internationally (2 of 3)
• The United Nations has established protected areas called biosphere
reserves that have exceptional levels of biodiversity and benefit local people.
– Biosphere reserves contain three zones, each of which has different
restrictions.
Figure 9.20 Biosphere reserves couple preservation with sustainable development.
Copyright ©2019, 2015. Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Parks and reserves are increasing internationally (3 of 3)
• The U.N. also designates world heritage sites, which
have special natural or cultural val…
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