Florida National University Nursing Roles and Scope Questions After reading Chapter 1 and reviewing the lecture power point, please answer the following qu

Florida National University Nursing Roles and Scope Questions After reading Chapter 1 and reviewing the lecture power point, please answer the following questions. Each question must have at least 3 paragraphs and you must use at 3 least references included in your post.

Additionally, you are expected to reply to two other students and include a reference that justifies your post. Your reply must be at least 3 paragraphs.

Chapter 1

1. After reading Chapter 1, do you think Florence Nightingale is relevant in the 21 st century to the nursing profession? Why or why not?

2. What do you think would be the response of historical nursing leaders such as Florence Nightingale, Lillian Wald, and Mary Breckenridge if they could see what the profession of nursing looks like today?

Your main post will be due on Wednesdays.

Is important NO plagiarism CHAPTER 1 History, Theory, and Research Strategies
9
Scientific Beginnings
1.4 Describe major early influences on the scientific study of
development.
CHILDHOOD
INFANCY
PHYSICAL COGNITIVE EMOTIONAL/
SOCIAL
FIGURE 1.3 The lifespan view of development. Rather than envisioning a single line of stagewise or continuous change (see Figure 1.1 on
page 4), lifespan theorists conceive of development as more like tree
branches extending in diverse directions. Many pathways are possible,
depending on the contexts that influence the individual’s life course. Each
branch in this treelike image represents a possible skill within one of the
major domains of development. The crossing of the branches signifies
that the domains—physical, cognitive, emotional, and social—are
interrelated.
Compared with Sofie’s era, much greater diversity exists today in
the ages at which people finish their education, enter careers,
marry, have children, and retire. Indeed, Sofie’s “off-time”
accomplishments would have been less unusual had she been
born two generations later.
Notice that instead of a single line of development, the lifespan perspective emphasizes many potential pathways and outcomes—an image more like tree branches extending in diverse
directions (see Figure 1.3). Now let’s turn to scientific foundations of the field as a prelude to major theories that address various aspects of change.
Scientific study of human development dates back to the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Early observations of
human change were soon followed by improved methods and
theories, contributing to the firm foundation on which the field
rests today.
Darwin: Forefather of Scientific
Child Study
British naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) observed the infinite variation among plant and animal species. He also saw that
within a species, no two individuals are exactly alike. From these
observations, he constructed his famous theory of evolution.
The theory emphasized two related principles: natural selection and survival of the fittest. Darwin explained that certain
species survive in particular environments because they have
characteristics that fit with, or are adapted to, their surroundings.
Individuals within a species who best meet the environment’s
survival requirements live long enough to reproduce and pass
their more beneficial characteristics to future generations. Darwin’s (1859/1936) emphasis on the adaptive value of physical
characteristics and behavior found its way into important developmental theories.
THOMAS TOLSTRUP/GETTY IMAGES
DEVELOPMENT
ADULTHOOD
Ask
yourself
CONNECT Distinguish age-graded, history-graded, and nonnormative influences on lifespan development. Cite an example of each in
Sofie’s story.
APPLY Anna, a high school counselor, devised a program that integrates classroom learning with vocational training to help adolescents
at risk for school dropout stay in school and transition to work life.
What is Anna’s position on stability versus plasticity in development?
Explain.
REFLECT Describe an aspect of your development that differs from
a parent’s or a grandparent’s when he or she was your age. Using
influences highlighted by the lifespan perspective, explain this difference in development.
Darwin’s theory of evolution emphasizes the adaptive value
of physical characteristics and behavior. Affection and care
in families promote survival and psychological well-being
throughout the lifespan. Here, a granddaughter shares a
moment of intimacy with her grandmother.
10 CHAPTER 1 History, Theory, and Research Strategies
The Baby Boomers Reshape
the Life Course
F
rom 1946 to 1964, 92 percent of all
American women of childbearing age
gave birth, averaging almost four children
each (Croker, 2007). This splurge of births,
which extended for nearly two decades,
yielded a unique generation often credited
with changing the world. Today, the baby
boomers number 74 million adults—about
23 percent of the U.S. population (Colby &
Ortman, 2014). Most are middle aged, with
the oldest having entered late adulthood.
Several interrelated factors sparked the
post–World War II baby boom. Many people
who had postponed marriage and parenthood
throughout the Great Depression of the 1930s
started families in the 1940s, once the economy had improved. With the end of World War
II, returning GIs also began to have children.
And as economic prosperity accelerated in
the 1950s, making larger families affordable,
more people married at younger ages and
had several children closely spaced (Stewart &
Malley, 2004). Finally, after a war, the desire to
make babies generally strengthens. Besides
replacing massive population loss, new births
signify hope that human life will endure.
Compared with their counterparts in the
previous generation, many more young baby
boomers were economically privileged. They
were also the recipients of deep emotional
investment from their parents, who—having
undergone the deprivations of depression
and war—often ranked children as the most
enduring benefit of their adult lives. These
factors may have engendered optimism, confidence, even a sense of entitlement (Elder,
Nguyen, & Caspi, 1985). At the same time,
their huge numbers—evident in overflowing
school classrooms—may have sparked an
intense struggle for individual recognition.
By the time the boomers reached early adulthood, this set of traits led critics to label them
a narcissistic, indulged, “me” generation.
From the mid-1960s to the early 1970s, the
“leading-edge” baby boomers (born in the late
1940s and early 1950s) entered colleges and
universities in record numbers, in part because
of draft deferments offered to students during
the Vietnam War. The boomers became better educated than any previous generation.
This cohort—self-focused, socially aware,
and in search of distinction—broke away
from their parents’ family- and marriagecentered lifestyles. Starting in the midsixties, marriage rates declined, age of first
marriage rose, and divorce rates increased.
And the baby boomers responded to the turbulence of those times—the assassination
of President Kennedy in 1963, the Vietnam
War, and growing racial tensions—by mobilizing around the antiwar, civil rights, and
women’s movements, yielding a generation
of student activists.
By the time the “trailing-edge” boomers
(born in the late 1950s and early 1960s) came
of age, these movements had left an enduring
mark. Even as they turned toward family life
and career development, the boomers continued to search for personal meaning, selfexpression, and social responsibility. By
midlife, the generation had produced an
unusually large number of socially concerned
writers, teachers, filmmakers, and labor and
community organizers, as well as innovative
musicians and artists (Cole & Stewart, 1996).
And a multitude of ordinary citizens worked
to advance social causes.
As baby-boom women entered the labor
market and struggled for career advancement
and equal pay, their self-confidence grew, and
they paved the way for the next generation:
On average, younger women attained this
same level of self-confidence at a much earlier
age (Twenge, 2001). And as baby-boom activists pressed for gender and racial equality,
they influenced national policy. The 1960s
saw laws passed that banned discrimination
in employment practices, in racial access to
public accommodations, and in sale or rental
of housing. By the 1970s, progress in civil
rights served as the springboard for the gay
and lesbian rights movement.
The baby boomers are healthier, better
educated, and financially better off than
any previous mid- or late-life cohort (New
Strategist Editors, 2015). Their sense of self-
JEAN-MARC GIBOUX/GETTY IMAGES
Cultural Influences
A “trailing edge” baby-boomer nurse immunizes an
infant in a village clinic in Afghanistan. The country
suffers from the second highest infant mortality rate
in the world. Service roles are just one way this cohort
contributes to society.
empowerment and innovativeness has energized efforts to increase the personal meaningfulness of their worklives and to deepen
their lifelong engagement with social causes.
Nevertheless, though advantaged as a
generation, the baby boomers are diverse in
health status and sense of control over their
lives. Those higher in education and income
are considerably better off. And because
retirement savings were heavily hit by the
economic recession of 2007 to 2009, and
pension plans with guaranteed fixed benefits had declined over the boomers’ employment years, many are working longer than
they had planned.
What lies ahead as, each year, millions of
members of this gigantic population bulge
transition to late adulthood? Most analysts
focus on societal burdens, such as rising social
security and health-care costs. At the same
time, aging boomers have more relevant experience in caring about their world—and more
years left to do so—than any previous cohort
of older adults. Many remain immersed in
their careers, start new businesses, or pursue challenging volunteer roles (Farrell, 2014).
As the boomers cast aside traditional retirement, they are redefining the last third of life
as a time of continued engagement, meaning,
and contributions to society.
CHAPTER 1 History, Theory, and Research Strategies
During his explorations, Darwin discovered that early prenatal growth is strikingly similar in many species. Other scientists concluded from Darwin’s observations that the development
of the human child follows the same general plan as the evolution
of the human species. Although this belief eventually proved inaccurate, efforts to chart parallels between child growth and human
evolution prompted researchers to make careful observations of all
aspects of children’s behavior. As a result, scientific child study
was born.
The Normative Period
G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924), one of the most influential American psychologists of the early twentieth century, is regarded as
the founder of the child study movement (Cairns & Cairns,
2006). He also wrote one of the few books of his time on aging,
foreshadowing lifespan research. Inspired by Darwin’s work,
Hall and his student Arnold Gesell (1880–1961) devised theories
based on evolutionary ideas. They regarded development as a
maturational process—a genetically determined series of events
that unfold automatically (Gesell, 1933; Hall, 1904).
Hall and Gesell are remembered less for their one-sided theories than for their intensive efforts to describe all aspects of
development. They launched the normative approach, in which
measures of behavior are taken on large numbers of individuals,
and age-related averages are computed to represent typical development. Using this procedure, Hall constructed elaborate questionnaires asking children of different ages almost everything
they could tell about themselves—interests, fears, imaginary
playmates, dreams, friendships, everyday knowledge, and more.
Through careful observations and parent interviews, Gesell collected detailed normative information on the motor achievements, social behaviors, and personality characteristics of infants
and children.
Gesell was also among the first to make knowledge about
child development meaningful to parents. His books, along with
Benjamin Spock’s Baby and Child Care, became central to a rapidly expanding child development literature for parents.
The Mental Testing Movement
While Hall and Gesell were developing their theories and methods in the United States, French psychologist Alfred Binet (1857–
1911) was also taking a normative approach, but for a different
reason. In the early 1900s, Binet and his colleague Theodore
Simon were asked by Paris school officials to find a way to identify children with learning problems for placement in special
classes. To address these practical educational concerns, Binet
and Simon constructed the first successful intelligence test.
In 1916, at Stanford University, Binet’s test was adapted for
use with English-speaking children. Since then, the English version has been known as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale.
Besides providing a score that successfully predicted school
achievement, the Binet test sparked tremendous interest in individual differences in development.
11
Mid-Twentieth-Century
Theories
1.5 What theories influenced human development research in the
mid-twentieth century?
In the mid-twentieth century, the study of human development
expanded into a legitimate discipline. A variety of theories
emerged, each of which still has followers today.
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
In the 1930s and 1940s, as more people sought help from professionals to deal with emotional difficulties, a new question had to
be addressed: How and why do people become the way they are?
To treat psychological problems, psychiatrists and social workers
turned to an approach to personality development that emphasized each individual’s unique life history.
According to the psychoanalytic perspective, people move
through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between
biological drives and social expectations. How these conflicts are
resolved determines the person’s ability to learn, to get along
with others, and to cope with anxiety. Among the many contributors to the psychoanalytic perspective, two were especially influential: Sigmund Freud, founder of the psychoanalytic movement,
and Erik Erikson.
Freud’s Theory. Freud (1856–1939), a Viennese physician,
sought a cure for emotionally troubled adults by having them
talk freely about painful events of their childhoods. Working with
these recollections, he examined his patients’ unconscious motivations and constructed his psychosexual theory, which emphasizes that how parents manage their child’s sexual and aggressive
drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality
development.
In Freud’s theory, three parts of the personality—id, ego, and
superego—become integrated during five stages, summarized in
Table 1.2 on page 12. The id, the largest portion of the mind, is
the source of basic biological needs and desires. The ego, the conscious, rational part of personality, emerges in early infancy to
redirect the id’s impulses into acceptable behaviors. Between 3 and
6 years of age, the superego, or conscience, develops as parents
insist that children conform to the values of society. Now the ego
faces the increasingly complex task of reconciling the demands
of the id, the external world, and conscience. According to Freud,
the relations established among id, ego, and superego during the
preschool years determine the individual’s basic personality.
Freud (1938/1973) believed that during childhood, sexual
impulses shift their focus from the oral to the anal to the genital
regions of the body. In each stage, parents walk a fine line
between permitting too much or too little gratification of their
child’s basic needs. If parents strike an appropriate balance, children grow into well-adjusted adults with the capacity for mature
sexual behavior and investment in family life.
12 CHAPTER 1 History, Theory, and Research Strategies
TABLE 1.2
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages and Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Compared
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGE
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE
Birth–1 year
Oral: If oral needs are not met through sucking from breast or
bottle, the individual may develop such habits as thumb sucking,
fingernail biting, overeating, or smoking.
Basic trust versus mistrust: From warm, responsive care, infants
gain a sense of trust, or confidence, that the world is good.
Mistrust occurs if infants are neglected or handled harshly.
1–3 years
Anal: Toddlers and preschoolers enjoy holding and releasing
urine and feces. If parents toilet train before children are ready or
make too few demands, conflicts about anal control may appear
in the form of extreme orderliness or disorder.
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: Using new mental and motor
skills, children want to decide for themselves. Parents can foster
autonomy by permitting reasonable free choice and not forcing
or shaming the child.
3–6 years
Phallic: As preschoolers take pleasure in genital stimulation,
Freud’s Oedipus conflict for boys and Electra conflict for girls arise:
Children feel a sexual desire for the other-sex parent. To avoid
punishment, they give up this desire and adopt the same-sex
parent’s characteristics and values. As a result, the superego is
formed, and children feel guilty when they violate its standards.
Initiative versus guilt: Through make-believe play, children gain
insight into the person they can become. Initiative—a sense of
ambition and responsibility—develops when parents support
their child’s sense of purpose. If parents demand too much selfcontrol, children experience excessive guilt.
6–11 years
Latency: Sexual instincts die down, and the superego strengthens
as children acquire new social values from adults and same-sex
peers.
Industry versus inferiority: At school, children learn to work and
cooperate with others. Inferiority develops when negative
experiences at home, at school, or with peers lead to feelings
of incompetence.
Adolescence
Genital: With puberty, sexual impulses reappear. Successful
development during earlier stages leads to marriage, mature
sexuality, and child rearing.
Identity versus role confusion: By exploring values and vocational
goals, young people form a personal identity. The negative
outcome is confusion about future adult roles.
Early adulthood
Middle adulthood
Old age
Erik Erikson
Freud’s theory was the first to stress the influence of the
early parent–child relationship on development. But his perspective was eventually criticized. First, it overemphasized the influence of sexual feelings in development. Second, because it was
based on the problems of sexually repressed, well-to-do adults in
nineteenth-century Victorian society, it did not apply in other
cultures. Finally, Freud had not studied children directly.
Erikson’s Theory. Several of Freud’s followers improved on
his vision, the most important of whom was Erik Erikson (1902–
1994). In his psychosocial theory, Erikson emphasized that in
addition to mediating between id impulses and superego
demands, the ego makes a positive contribution to development,
acquiring attitudes and skills that make the individual an active,
contributing member of society. A basic psychosocial conflict,
which is resolved along a continuum from positive to negative,
determines healthy or maladaptive outcomes at each stage. As
© JON ERIKSON/THE IMAGE WORKS
APPROXIMATE AGE
Intimacy versus isolation: Young adults establish intimate
relationships. Because of earlier disappointments, some
individuals cannot form close bonds and remain isolated.
Generativity versus stagnation: Generativity means giving to the
next generation through child rearing, caring for others, or
productive work. The person who fails in these ways feels an
absence of meaningful accomplishment.
Integrity versus despair: Integrity results from feeling that life was
worth living as it happened. Older people who are dissatisfied
with their lives fear death.
Table 1.2 shows, Erikson’s first five stages parallel Freud’s
stages, but Erikson added three adult stages.
Erikson pointed out that normal development must be understood in relation to each culture’s life situation. For example, in
the 1940s, he observed that Yurok Indians of the U.S. northwest
coast deprived newborns of breastfeeding for the first 10 days,
instead feeding them a thin soup. At age 6 months, infants were
abruptly weaned—a practice that, from our cultural vantage
point, might seem cruel. But Erikson explained that the Yurok
lived in a world in which salmon filled the river just once a year,
a circumsta…
Purchase answer to see full
attachment