Impact of cyber-attacks discussion In an effort to evaluate the cyber security threats in the public and private sector, research/locate two recent cyber-a

Impact of cyber-attacks discussion In an effort to evaluate the cyber security threats in the public and private sector, research/locate two recent cyber-attacks and discuss its impact, some factors that made this system vulnerable, and our homeland security effort and response to protect this critical infrastructure.Read at least one peer-reviewed article on the topic of a critical infrastructure. What are the threats and vulnerabilities the author identified? How does the author propose we fix the problems? Give your assessment of the threats and challenges.Instructions: Fully utilize the materials that have been provided to you in order to support your response. Your initial post should be at least 600 words. (IJCSIS) International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security,
Vol. 10, No. 2, 2012
A Dynamic Cyber Terrorism Framework
Rabiah Ahmad
Zahri Yunos
Dept of Computer System and Communication
Faculty of Information and Communication Technology
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM)
Melaka, Malaysia
rabiah@utem.edu.my
CyberSecurity Malaysia
Selangor, Malaysia
zahri@cybersecurity.my
and willingness to conduct operations of different kinds against
specific targets are fundamental [5]. If perpetrators follow the
lead of hackers, theoretically they have the capability to use
ICT to conduct cyber attacks against specific targets. Due to
the fact that cyberspace has no boundaries, there is a possibility
that the terrorists or terrorist groups may pursue cyber terrorism
in conducting offensive attacks and supporting physical
violence in the future [6].
Abstract—Many nations all over the world have increased their
dependency on cyberspace by maximizing the use of Information
and Communication Technology (ICT). In this digital age, the
concept of cyber terrorism or the use of cyberspace to carry out
terrorist activities has emerged. Interestingly, there are many
concepts of cyber terrorism provided by researchers, policy
makers and individuals. This paper proposes a framework
describing the core components of cyber terrorism. The authors
have analyzed the data by using a grounded theory approach, in
which the framework is drawn. The framework defines cyber
terrorism from six perspectives: Target, motivation, method of
attack, domain, action by perpetrator, and impact. In addition,
the proposed framework provides a dynamic way in defining
cyber terrorism as well as describing its influential
considerations. Continued research in this area can be further
conducted, which may lead to the development of strategic and
technological framework to counter cyber terrorism.
II.
A. Cyber Terrorism
War, crime and terrorism are traditional concepts that occur
in the physical domain, the only new aspect is the “cyber”
domain. Physical terrorism and cyber terrorism share the same
basic elements i.e. sharing a common denominator – terrorism.
Several researchers have argued that the underlying principles
of terrorism behind the threat remain the same [6], and they
have described terrorism activities in the cyber world as cyber
terrorism [7].
Keywords-component; Cyber Terrorism, Cyberspace, ICT,
Terrorism
I.
CONCEPTS AND TERMS
INTRODUCTION
It is noted that several definitions of terrorism have
included targets directed at computer systems and its services
that control a nation’s energy facilities, water distributions,
communication systems, and other critical infrastructures.
Malaysia’s Penal Code, Chapter VIA, Sections 130B – 130T
comprises provisions dealing with terrorism [8]. Section 130B
(2) (h) defines terrorism as an act or threat of action designed
or intended to disrupt or seriously interfere with, any computer
system or the provision of any services directly related to
communications infrastructure, banking or financial services,
utilities, transportation or other essential infrastructure.
Australia’s Security Legislation Amendment (Terrorism) Act
2002 defines terrorism, among others, as actions that seriously
interfere, disrupt, or destroy, an electronic system including,
but not limited to, an information system; a
telecommunications system; a financial system; a system used
for the delivery of essential government services; a system used
for, or by, an essential public utility; or a system used for, or
by, a transport system” [9].
Cyberspace and the Internet are at the center of modern life
and have become an important medium for businesses,
economics, politics and communities. Many nations all over
the world have constantly increased their dependency on
cyberspace by maximizing the use of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT). ICT offers a double-edged
sword. While development in the area of ICT allows for
enormous gains in efficiency and productivity, it has also
created opportunities for those with devious ambitions to cause
harm [1]. At the same time, it can be a powerful tool for
perpetrators such as extremists and terrorist groups to promote
extremist ideologies and propaganda materials as well as to
create public fear by damaging assets that are vital to national
interest and security [2] [3]. The same technological advances
that are benefiting the public at large are also increasing the
arsenal of our adversaries.
Critical National Information Infrastructure (CNII)
underlies the nation’s economic, political, strategic and socioeconomic activities [4]. Many stakeholders are concerned with
terrorist attacks against critical infrastructures such as
telecommunications, power distributions, transportation,
financial services and essential public utility services. Terrorist
cyber attacks on CNII is possible, where the motives, resources
The term cyber terrorism was first coined in the 1980s by
Barry Collin [10], a senior research fellow at the Institute for
Security and Intelligence in California. According to him, the
convergence of the “virtual world” and “physical world” form
the vehicle of cyber terrorism. Collin further clarifies that the
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virtual world is the place in which computer programs function
and data moves whereas the physical world is the place in
which we live and function. The growing convergence of the
physical and virtual worlds is becoming more complex.
Nowadays, ICT plays a major role in the convergence of these
two worlds.
perpetrated by the use of computers and telecommunications
capabilities, which leads to death, bodily injury, explosions and
severe economic loss. Nagpal [19] defines cyber terrorism as
the premeditated use of disruptive activities, or the threat
thereof, in cyber space, with the intention to further social,
ideological, religious, political or similar objectives, or to
intimidate any person in furtherance of such objectives.
Denning [11] defines cyber terrorism as unlawful attacks
and threats of attack against computers, networks and the
information stored therein when done to intimidate or coerce a
government or its people in furtherance of political or social
objectives. Denning also clarifies that, “Further, to qualify as
cyber terrorism, an attack should result in violence against
persons or property, or at least cause enough harm to generate
fear. Attacks that lead to death or bodily injury, explosions,
plane crashes, water contamination, or severe economic loss
would be examples. Serious attacks against critical
infrastructures could be acts of cyber terrorism, depending on
their impact. Attacks that disrupt non-essential services, or that
are mainly a costly nuisance, would not.” Definition by
Denning consists of several important components on the
concept of cyber terrorism. First, it refers to unlawful attacks.
Second, the attacks and threats of attacks against computers,
networks and the information stored within them. Third, the
purpose of (unlawful attacks) is intimidating or influencing a
government or society to further political or social objectives.
Fourth, the attack results in violence against persons or
property, or at least causes enough harm to generate fear.
Lastly, serious attacks against critical infrastructures could be
acts of cyber terrorism.
Method of attack in cyber terrorism seems to use computer
technology in carrying out the acts of terrorism. Beggs [20]
defines cyber terrorism as the use of ICT to attack and control
critical information systems with the intent to cause harm and
spread fear to people, or at least with the anticipation of
changing domestic, national, or international events. Similarly,
Weimann [21] defines cyber terrorism as the use of computer
network tools to harm or shut down critical national
infrastructures (such as energy, transportation and government
operations). CRS Report for Congress [22] defines cyber
terrorism as the use of computer or weapons, or as targets, by
politically motivated international, or sub-national groups, or
clandestine agents who threaten or cause violence and fear in
order to influence and audience, or cause a government to
change its policies.
As defined by Denning, the action by perpetrator involves
to unlawful attacks to the targeted audiences. This notion is
supported by Ariely [23] where cyber terrorism is referred as
the intentional use or threat of use, without legally recognized
authority, of violence, disruption, or interference against cyber
systems. The result would be in death or injury of a person or
persons, substantially damage to physical property, civil
disorder or significant economic harm. This understanding is in
line with study conducted by Nelson et al. [24] which defined
cyber terrorism as the unlawful destruction or disruption of
digital property to intimidate or coerce governments or
societies in the pursuit of goals that are political, religious or
ideological.
Likewise, Lewis [12] defines cyber terrorism as the use of
computer network tools to shut down critical national
infrastructures (such as energy, transportation, government
operations) or to coerce or intimidate a government or civilian
population. Mantel [13] defines cyber terrorism as highly
damaging computer attacks by private individuals designed to
generate terror and fear to achieve political or social goals.
Mshvidobadze [14] defines cyber terrorism as cyber acts
designed to foment terror or demoralization among a target
population for some purpose of the perpetrator, most likely this
will be some kind of attack on critical infrastructure. Cyber
terrorism should be involving computer technology and means
as a weapon or target by terrorist groups or agents [15]. In the
context of cyber terrorism, the above definitions suggest that
critical infrastructure’s computer system and civilian population
would seem become attractive targets and contribute to the
uniqueness of cyber terrorism. Here, the direct damage caused
by the attack is to the critical infrastructure’s computer system
and civilian population.
Cyber terrorism can have critical impact to the targeted
audiences such as to cause fear to anyone in the vicinity or
result in violence, death and destruction. Stohl [25] argues that
cyber terrorism includes some form of intimidate, coerce,
influence as well as violence. He defines cyber terrorism as the
purposeful act or the threat of the act of violence to create fear
and/or compliant behavior in a victim and/or audience of the
act or threat. In a report to the United Nation General Assembly
First Committee on Disarmament and International Security,
cyber terrorism is mentioned as actions conducted via
computer network that may cause violence against or generate
fear among people, or lead to serious destruction for political or
social problem [26]. Ron Dick, Director of the US’s National
Infrastructure Protection Center (NIPC) defines cyber terrorism
a criminal act perpetrated through computers resulting in
violence, death and/or destruction, and creating terror for the
purpose of coercing a government to change its policies (as
cited in [27]). This definition perhaps is taken from the US
Government’s definition of terrorism with the inclusion of
“computer” in the definition.
The context of cyber terrorism seems to argue that this term
comprises component of motivation such as political, social
and belief. For example, Conway [16] describes that, in order
to be labeled as cyber terrorism, the attacks must have a
terrorist component, which is result in death and/or large scale
destruction and politically motivated. Pollitt [17] defines cyber
terrorism as the premeditated, politically motivated attack
against information, computer systems, computer programs,
and data which result in violence against non-combatants target
by sub national groups or clandestine agents. Czerpak [18]
argues that cyber terrorism is a politically driven attack
Kerr [28] believes that cyber terrorism should have three
common elements: The use of violence, political objectives,
and the purpose of showing fear within a target population.
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Ellsmore [29] says that cyber terrorism can be differentiated in
terms of intent, outcome and the use of skills. Further analysis
suggests that there are at least five elements which must be
satisfied to construe cyber terrorism as described in Table I
[30].
activity [36]. Malaysia too has enacted the Computer Crimes
Act 1997. The purpose of the Act is to provide offenses relating
to the misuse of computers. Amongst other things, it also deals
with unauthorized access to computer material, unauthorized
access with intent to commit other offenses and unauthorized
modification of computer contents [38]. From legal
perspective, the definition of Malaysia’s computer crimes in
Computer Crimes Act 1997 and terrorism in Penal Code,
Chapter VII A, Section 130B is different. These two concepts
cover different areas. In the simplest terms, cyber terrorists’
actions may cause prejudice to national security and public
safety whereas cyber criminals’ actions may cause prejudice to
individuals or groups for the purpose of monetary gain.
Table I: Elements of Cyber Terrorism (adapted from Yunos et al. [30])
Elements of
Cyber
Terrorism
? Politically-motivated cyber attacks that lead
to death or bodily injury;
? Cyber attacks that cause fear and/or
physical harm through cyber attack
techniques;
? Serious attacks against critical information
infrastructures such as financial, energy,
transportation and government operations;
? Attacks that disrupt non-essential services
are not considered cyber terrorism; and
? Attacks that are not primarily focused on
monetary gain.
Many studies have indicated that the Web 2.0 media such
as interactive websites and blogs, social networking sites and
discussion forums have been rapidly used by extremists as the
medium to support their online activities [13]. However, it is
important to note that cyber terrorism is different from
terrorists’ use of the Internet [31]. Taliharm [33] argues that
cyber terrorism should not be confused with the use of illicit
activities or Internet radicalization in cyberspace by the
terrorist groups [33]. Taliharm [33] further argues that
terrorists’ use of the Internet is just action by certain individual
or group to organize illicit activities by using the cyberspace.
Based on the discussion above, there is no common
agreement on the concept of cyber terrorism at the international
front and among the researchers. While there are many
definitions of cyber terrorism, these suggest a trend that further
analysis of the phenomena could be further conducted. This is
evidence as the study of this concept has been the focus of
many policy makers and scholarly studies, but their standpoints
and views vary. Due to multidimensional structures (or
components) of cyber terrorism, we can say that the concept of
cyber terrorism is a contested concept who interpret it
differently by a number of parties. The context of cyber
terrorism denotes different understandings and interpretations.
Radicalization and extremism in cyberspace, however, can
lead to terrorism [39]. Understanding online radicalization is
one of the pillars of the fight against terrorism [21]. Perhaps the
main concern is the potential for terrorists to use the Internet to
inflict damage. The United Nations’ report mentioned that the
concern is to prevent moderates from becoming extremists, and
extremists from becoming terrorists [40]. Threats from
terrorism must be analyzed before they evolve into fullyfledged threats. Many of the actors in foiled plots have been
discovered to have been radicalized online, on terrorists’ and
extremists’ websites and chat rooms, amongst others, to
provide information on weapons and explosives and facilitate
large-scale recruitment efforts and propaganda [3].
B. A Clear Line between Terms
When discussing cyber terrorism, there is always confusion
between the term cyber terrorism with “cyber crimes” and
“terrorist use of the Internet” [31]. However, these terms
should not be mistaken as synonyms for cyber terrorism.
C. Empirical Cyber Terrorism Frameworks
Based on literatures, there are several empirical frameworks
on cyber terrorism proposed by researchers. Veerasamy
proposed a conceptual framework outlining the aspect of cyber
terrorism that addresses the operating forces, the techniques
and the objectives [41]. The operating forces provide the
context in which cyber terrorism is functioning, in which it
describes the qualities of a cyber terrorist as well as the
properties of cyber terrorism in general. The technique
describes practical methods and classification descriptions of
carrying out cyber terrorism via invasive or offensive computer
and network security practices. The objectives are similar to the
motivation, where the intent is to cause direct damage via
malicious goals and support functions. The framework
provides a high level overview and serves as a basis of
considerations in the domain of cyber terrorism. However, the
framework’s attributes are not interactive and quite complex.
The framework signifies that in order to consider cyber
terrorism, at least one or more elements must be fulfilled.
However, this is not accurate as cyber terrorism should be seen
from a holistic perspective.
Cyber terrorism has become a buzzword and is often
sensationalized in the media whereby reports of cyber crimes
are posed as cyber terrorism [31]. Berner [32] argues terms
such as “computer crime” or “economic espionage” must not
be associated with the term cyber terrorism. In defining cyber
terrorist and cyber crime activities, it is necessary to segment
the motivation and action [33]. From the motivation
perspective, cyber terrorism is clearly different, operating with
a specific agenda to support their actions [34]. Cyber crime and
cyber terrorism can be differentiated through financial or
economic purposes [35] [36].
The United Nations categorized cyber crime as
unauthorized access, damage to computer data or programs,
sabotage to hinder the functioning of computer system or
network, unauthorized interception of data to, from and within
a system or network; and computer espionage [37]. From a
legal perspective, cyber crimes and cyber terrorism are two
different things. In the United States, The Computer Fraud and
Abuse Act (18 USC: 1030) defines cyber crimes as
unauthorized computer intrusions or misuse as unlawful
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physical trauma.
Another framework on cyber terrorism, proposed by
Tool
Kidnapping/ Terrorists use the computer as a
Heickero, illustrates the effects and consequences of cyber
Harassment/ tool. Facilitating identity theft,
terrorism operation from actor-target-effect chain in an
Propaganda/ computer viruses, hacking are
asymmetric context [5]. The model illustrates how cyber
Education
examples that fall under this
terrorism in different phases could plan and accomplish a cyber
category.
operation as well as the effects and consequences of the digital
Target
Government Potential targets are corporations
attack. Figure 1 provides an illustration of how cyber terrorism
Officials/Cor and government computer
is conducted.
porations
systems.
Affiliation
Actual/
Affiliation refers to recruitment
Claimed
in carrying out given
instructions. Affiliation can
result in the strengthening of
individual orga…
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