Chapter 2 History of Human Sexuality Discussion You are required to thoroughly answer the question and clearly connect the information to the learning obje

Chapter 2 History of Human Sexuality Discussion You are required to thoroughly answer the question and clearly connect the information to the learning objectives. The summaries should show critical analysis and synthesis of the information in a way that demonstrates good understanding of the material presented. Each question should be 4-5 paragraphs (containing a minimum of 4-6 sentences each) in length, which means there will be about 10 paragraphs total.

First question – Please watching the video of “History of Human Sexuality: How Sex Changed the World” , then describe 3 things you take the history of human sexuality that you didn’t know before taking this class. Include the influences of religion, culture, and politics in your discussion. Be specific and give examples.

Second question – Name 3 contributions Kinsey made to sex research and our understanding of human sexuality, and identify 3 limitations and/or ethical issues related to Kinsey’s research methodology. Be specific and use examples from the movie (Let’s Talk About Sex–recommended) or textbook (pp.46- pp.66) that I attached below. yar35317_ch02_029-067.indd Page 36 6/23/12 9:24 PM user-f502
/Volume/207/es/MH01875/yar35317_disk1of1/0078035317/yar35317_pagefiles
Ethnocentrism is the belief that
one’s own culture or ethnic
group is superior to others.
Although child marriage is
prohibited in our society, it is
acceptable in many cultures
throughout the world, including
India.
All universal judgments are weak,
“ loose, and dangerous.
—Michel de Montaigne
(1533–1595)
and stereotypes about other groups and cultures. As members of a group, we
tend to share similar values and attitudes with other group members. But the
mere fact that we share these beliefs is not sufficient proof of their truth.
Ethnocentrism has been increasingly evident as a reaction to the increased
awareness of ethnicity, or ethnic affiliation or identity. For many Americans, a
significant part of their sense of self comes from identification with their ethnic
group. An ethnic group is a group of people distinct from other groups because
of cultural characteristics, such as language, religion, and customs, that are
transmitted from one generation to the next.
Although there was little research on ethnicity and sexuality until the 1980s,
evidence suggests that there are significant ethnic variations in terms of sexual
attitudes and behavior. When data are available, the variations by ethnicity will
be presented throughout this book.
Ethnocentrism results when we stereotype other cultures as “primitive,”
“innocent,” “inferior,” or “not as advanced.” We may view the behavior of other
peoples as strange, exotic, unusual, or bizarre, but to them it is normal. Their
attitudes, behaviors, values, and beliefs form a unified sexual system that makes
sense within their culture. In fact, we engage in many activities that appear
peculiar to those outside our culture.
•
We are the recorders and reporters of
“ facts—not judges of the behavior we
describe.
—Alfred C. Kinsey
(1894–1965)
36
•
Chapter 2
Sex Research Methods
One of the key factors that distinguishes the findings of social science from
beliefs, prejudice, bias, and pop psychology is its commitment to the scientific
method. The scientific method is the method by which a hypothesis is formed
from impartially gathered data and tested empirically. The scientific method
relies on induction—that is, drawing a general conclusion from specific facts.
The scientific method seeks to describe the world rather than evaluate or
judge it.
Studying Human Sexuality
yar35317_ch02_029-067.indd Page 37 6/23/12 9:24 PM user-f502
/Volume/207/es/MH01875/yar35317_disk1of1/0078035317/yar35317_pagefiles
Although sex researchers, sometimes called sexologists, use the same methodology as other social scientists, they are constrained by ethical concerns and
taboos that those in many other fields do not experience. Because of the taboos
surrounding sexuality, some traditional research methods are inappropriate.
Sex research, like most social science research, uses different methodological
approaches. These include clinical research, survey research (questionnaires and
interviews), observational research, and experimental research. And as in many
fields, no single research paradigm has emerged in sexual science (Weis, 2002).
Research Concerns
Researchers face two general concerns in conducting their work: (1) ethical concerns
centering on the use of human beings as subjects and (2) methodological concerns
regarding sampling techniques and their accuracy. Without a representative sample,
the conclusions that can be drawn using these methodologies are limited.
Ethics are important in any scientific endeavor. They are especially important in such an emotional and value-laden subject as sexuality.
Among the most important ethical issues are informed consent, protection
from harm, and confidentiality.
Informed consent is the full disclosure to an individual of the purpose,
potential risks, and benefits of participating in a research project. Under
informed consent, people are free to decide whether to participate in a project
without coercion or deceit. Studies involving children and other minors typically require parental consent. Once a study begins, participants have the right
to withdraw at any time without penalty.
Each research participant is entitled to protection from harm. Some sex
research, such as the viewing of explicit films to measure physiological responses,
may cause some people emotional distress. The identity of research subjects
should be kept confidential. Because of the highly charged nature of sexuality,
participants also need to be guaranteed anonymity.
All colleges and universities have review boards or human-subject committees to make sure that researchers follow ethical guidelines. Proposed research
is submitted to the committee for approval before the project begins.
Ethical Issues
Anything more than truth would be
“ too much.
—Robert Frost
(1874–1963)
Sampling In each research approach, the choice of a sample—a portion of
a larger group of people or population—is critical. To be most useful, a sample
should be a random sample—that is, a sample collected in an unbiased way,
with the selection of each member of the sample based solely on chance. Furthermore, the sample should be a representative sample, with a small group
representing the larger group in terms of age, sex, ethnicity, socioeconomic
status, sexual orientation, and so on. When a random sample is used, information gathered from a small group can be used to make inferences about the
larger group. Samples that are not representative of the larger group are known
as biased samples.
Using samples is important. It would be impossible, for example, to study
the sexual behaviors of all college students in the United States. But we could
select a representative sample of college students from various schools and infer
from their behavior how other college students behave. Using the same sample
to infer the sexual behavior of Americans in general, however, would mean
using a biased sample. We cannot generalize the sexual activities of American
college students to the larger population.
Sex Research Methods
•
37
yar35317_ch02_029-067.indd Page 38 6/23/12 9:24 PM user-f502
/Volume/207/es/MH01875/yar35317_disk1of1/0078035317/yar35317_pagefiles
Most samples in sex research are limited for several reasons:
■ They depend on volunteers or clients.
A couple is being interviewed by
a sex researcher. The face-to-face
interview, one method of
gathering data about sexuality,
has both advantages and
disadvantages.
Because these samples are generally
self-selected, we cannot assume that
they are representative of the population as a whole. Volunteers for sex
research are often more likely to be
male, sexually experienced, liberal,
and less religious and to have more
positive attitudes toward sexuality and
less sex guilt and anxiety than those
who do not choose to participate
(Strassberg & Lowe, 1995;
Wiederman, 1999).
■ Most sex research takes place in a university or college setting with student volunteers. Their sex-related attitudes, values, and behaviors may
be very different from those of older adults.
■ Some ethnic groups are generally underrepresented. Representative samples of African Americans, Latinos, American Indians, Middle Eastern
Americans, and some Asian Americans, for example, are not easily found
because these groups are underrepresented at the colleges and universities
where subjects are generally recruited.
■ The study of gay men, lesbian women, and bisexual and transgender individuals presents unique sampling issues. Are gay men, lesbian women,
and bisexual individuals who have come out—publicly identified themselves as gay, lesbian, or bisexual—different from those who have not?
How do researchers find and recruit subjects who have not come out?
Because these factors limit most studies, we must be careful in making generalizations from studies.
Clinical Research
Clinical research is the in-depth examination of an individual or group that
comes to a psychiatrist, psychologist, or social worker for assistance with psychological or medical problems or disorders. Clinical research is descriptive;
inferences of cause and effect cannot be drawn from it. The individual is interviewed and treated for a specific problem. At the same time the person is being
treated, he or she is being studied. In their evaluations, clinicians attempt to
determine what caused the disorder and how it may be treated. They may also
try to infer from dysfunctional people how healthy people develop. Clinical
research often focuses on atypical, unhealthy behaviors, problems related to
sexuality (e.g., feeling trapped in the body of the wrong gender), and sexual
function problems (e.g., lack of desire, early ejaculation, erectile difficulties, or
lack of orgasm).
A major limitation of clinical research is its emphasis on pathological
behavior, or unhealthy or diseased behavior. Such an emphasis makes clinical
research dependent on cultural definitions of what is “unhealthy” or “pathological.” These definitions, however, change over time and in the context of the
culture being studied. In the nineteenth century, for example, masturbation
38
•
Chapter 2
Studying Human Sexuality
yar35317_ch02_029-067.indd Page 39 6/23/12 9:24 PM user-f502
/Volume/207/es/MH01875/yar35317_disk1of1/0078035317/yar35317_pagefiles
was considered pathological. Physicians and clinicians went to great lengths to
root it out. In the case of women, surgeons sometimes removed the clitoris.
Today, masturbation is viewed more positively.
Survey Research
Survey research is a method that uses questionnaires or interviews to gather
information. Questionnaires offer anonymity, can be completed fairly quickly,
and are relatively inexpensive to administer; however, they usually do not allow
an in-depth response. A person must respond with a short answer or select
from a limited number of options. The limited-choices format provides a more
objective assessment than the short-answer format and results in a total score.
Interview techniques avoid some of the shortcomings of questionnaires, as
interviewers are able to probe in greater depth and follow paths suggested by
the participant.
Although surveys are important sources of information, the method has several
limitations, as people may be poor reporters of their own sexual behavior:
The great tragedy of science—the
“ slaying of a beautiful hypothesis by an
ugly fact.
—Thomas Huxley
(1825–1895)
■ Some people may exaggerate their number of sexual partners; others
may minimize their casual encounters.
■ Respondents generally underreport experiences that might be considered
■
■
■
■
■
deviant or immoral, such as bondage and same-sex experiences.
Some respondents may feel uncomfortable about revealing information—
such as about masturbation or fetishes—in a face-to-face interview.
The accuracy of one’s memory may fade as time passes, and providing an
accurate estimation, such as how long sex lasted, may be difficult.
Some ethnic groups, because of their cultural values, may be reluctant to
reveal sexual information about themselves.
Interviewers may allow their own preconceptions to influence the way in
which they frame questions and to bias their interpretations of responses.
The interviewer’s sex, race, or orientation may also influence how comfortable respondents are in disclosing information about themselves.
Interestingly, despite these limitations of self-reporting of sexual behavior, a
recent review of seven population-based surveys of adults in the United States
concluded that self-reported data may not be as unreliable as generally assumed.
The study examined the consistency in the number of sexual partners reported
in these seven national studies and found a remarkable level of consistency
among the studies. The researchers concluded that the findings show promise
for research that relies on self-reported number of sexual partners (Hamilton &
Morris, 2010).
Some researchers use computers to improve interviewing techniques for sensitive topics. With the audio computer-assisted self-interviewing (audio-CASI)
method, the respondent hears the questions over headphones or reads them on
a computer screen and then enters her or his responses into the computer. AudioCASI apparently increases feelings of confidentiality and accuracy of responses
on sensitive topics such as sexual risk behaviors (Cooley et al., 2001; Des Jarlais
et al., 1999; Potdar & Koenig, 2005). Even though the use of audio-CASI has
advantages, research has found that the use of the audio part by respondents was
limited and that gains in more candid responses from the audio component are
modest relative to text-only CASI (Couper, Tourangeu, & Marvin, 2009).
Sex Research Methods
•
39
yar35317_ch02_029-067.indd Page 40 6/23/12 9:24 PM user-f502
/Volume/207/es/MH01875/yar35317_disk1of1/0078035317/yar35317_pagefiles
practically
speaking
Answering a Sex Research Questionnaire:
Measure of Sexual Identity Exploration and
Commitment
To measure variables related to sexuality, many sex
researchers use standardized (i.e., reliable and valid)
questionnaires. One such questionnaire, the Measure of Sexual
Identity Exploration and Commitment (MoSIEC), assesses sexual
identity development and can be used by persons of any sexual
orientation (Worthington, Navarro, Savoy, & Hampton, 2008).
Sexual identity refers to one’s self-label or self-identification as a
heterosexual, gay, lesbian, or bisexual person (Hyde & DeLamater,
2011). The MoSIEC is a theoretically based questionnaire that
contains four components or subscales: exploration (pursuit of a
revised and refined sense of self), commitment (choice to adopt
a specific identity represented by a unified set of goals, values,
and beliefs), synthesis (a state of congruence among all dimensions of individual sexual identity and the broader sense of self),
and sexual orientation identity uncertainty (not being sure about
one’s sexual identity). The MoSIEC can help sex researchers, for
example, understand the relationship between the processes of
sexual identity development and sexual risk behavior related to
sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, and unintended
pregnancy.
The MoSIEC is presented below. Take it to find out what it is
like to complete a sex research questionnaire, as well as get a
general idea about your own sexual identity development.
Directions
Refer to these definitions when completing the questionnaire:
Sexual needs An internal, subjective experience of instinct, desire,
appetite, biological necessity, impulses, interest, and/or libido
with respect to sex.
Sexual values Moral evaluations, judgments, and/or standards
about what is appropriate, acceptable, desirable, and innate
sexual behavior.
Sexual activities Any behavior that a person might engage in
relating to or based on sexual attraction, sexual arousal, sexual
gratification, or reproduction (e.g., fantasy to holding hands to
kissing to sexual intercourse).
Modes of sexual expression Any form of communication (verbal or
nonverbal) or direct and indirect signals that a person might use to
convey her or his sexuality (e.g., flirting, eye contact, touching,
vocal quality, compliments, suggestive body movements or
postures).
Sexual orientation An enduring emotional, romantic, sexual, or
affectional attraction to other persons that ranges from exclusive
heterosexuality to exclusive homosexuality and includes various
forms of bisexuality.
Respond to each below item as honestly as you can, using the
key 1 ⫽ very uncharacteristic of me to 6 ⫽ very characteristic
of me. Circle your response. There are no right or wrong
answers.
40
•
Chapter 2
Studying Human Sexuality
Very
uncharacteristic
of me
Very
characteristic
of me
1. My sexual orientation
is clear to me.
1
2
3
4
5
6
2. I went through a period
in my life when I was
trying to determine
my sexual needs.
1
2
3
4
5
6
3. I am actively trying to
learn more about my
own sexual needs.
1
2
3
4
5
6
4. My sexual values are
consistent with all of
the other aspects of
my sexuality.
1
2
3
4
5
6
5. I am open to
experiment with new
types of sexual
activities in the future.
1
2
3
4
5
6
6. I am actively trying
new ways to express
myself sexually.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7. My understanding of
my sexual needs
coincides with my
overall sense of
sexual self.
1
2
3
4
5
6
8. I went through a
period in my life when
I was trying different
forms of sexual
expression.
1
2
3
4
5
6
9. My sexual values will
always be open to
sexual exploration.
1
2
3
4
5
6
10. I know what my
preferences are for
expressing myself
sexually.
1
2
3
4
5
6
11. I have a clear sense
of the types of
sexual activities I
prefer.
1
2
3
4
5
6
12. I am actively
experimenting with
sexual activities that
are new to me.
1
2
3
4
5
6
yar35317_ch02_029-067.indd Page 41 8/6/12 3:28 PM user-f502
13. The ways I express
myself sexually are
consistent with all of
the other aspects of
my sexuality.
14. I sometimes feel
uncertain about my
sexual orientation.
15. I do not know how to
express myself sexually.
16. I have never clearly
identified what my
sexual values are.
/Volume/207/es/MH01875/yar35317_disk1of1/0078035317/yar35317_pagefiles
Very
uncharacteristic
of me
Very
characteristic
of me
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
2
3
4
5
6
2
3
4
5
6
2
3
4
5
6
2
3
4
5
6
2
3
4
5
6
2
3
4
5
6
17. The sexual activities I
prefer are compatible
with all of the other
aspects of my sexuality. 1
18. I have never clearly
identified what my
sexual needs are.
1
19. I can see myself trying new
ways of expressing myself
sexually in the future.
1
20. I have a firm sense of
what my sexual
needs are.
1
21. My sexual orientation
is not clear to me.
1
22. My sexual orientation
is compatible with all
of the other aspects of
my sexuality.
1
identification of sexual orientation, and preferred modes of sexual
expression). Sexual identity exploration is a normal aspect of
human development, especially for people in their adolescence
and young adulthood. Studies have shown that those who are
uncertain about their sexual identity or who identify as a lesbian,
gay, or bisexual person tend to score higher on this subscale than
heterosexual individuals.
Commitment Higher average scores on this subscale mean that a
person has a clear and relatively fixed sense of perceived sexual
needs, preferred sexual activities, sexual values, recognition and
identification of sexual orientation, and preferred modes of sexual
expression. Sexual identity typically becomes stronger as one
ages, and high scores can be found in persons of any sexual
orientation identity.
Synthesis Higher average scores on this scale mean that the
person has expressed greater congruence and correspondence
in his/her level of commitment across all dimensions of sexual
identity. That is, those who score higher on this subscale tend to
perceive their sexual values, needs, activities, modes of sexual
expression, and sexual orientation identities as in sync with one
another, as well as with their broader sense of self.
Sexual Orientation Uncertainty Higher average scores on this
subscale mean that the person has expressed greater
uncertainty about his/her sexual orientation as a gay, lesbian,
bisexual, or heterosexual individual. Research shows that many
people experience sexual orientation uncertainty at some time
in their lives, and that uncertainty is often accompanied by
lower levels of sexual identity commitment and higher levels of
sexual identity exploration. Bisexual persons tend to score
higher on this subscale than those of other sexual or…
Purchase answer to see full
attachment