Impact of Flextime Work on Job Satisfaction and Motivation Assignment | Online Assignment

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Literature review

1. Flexible work
   • Definition

Flexible working hour arrangements typically take one of a few standard forms; these range from a bandwidth (Swart, 1974), which is a combination of a specific number of hours that must be worked each day and core hours of the day during which all employees must be present, to compressed weeks, such as four ten-hour days (known as 4/40 (Fottler, 1977; Dunham & Hawk, 1977; Ronen & Primps, 1981)). The academic literature on the differences between the forms and their relative pros and cons is significant and varied — for example, some authors establish a firm distinction between the different kinds (e.g. Golembiewski & Proel 1978) others do not. Either way, an exploration into the implementation impediments that pertain specifically to each of the different variations would be impossible within the scope of this project, which therefore considers literature on the adoption of all variations of flexible working hours.

Definition: A work schedule in which employees’ workdays are built around a core of mid-day hours when all workers are required to be present (Dessler, 2008). The most prevalent alternative work arrangement, flexitime or flexible work hours, typically consists of flexible workday start and finish times. Most organizations that offer flexitime require all employees to be on the job during a set of core hours, but allow employees more choice over their work schedules on either side of these core hours (Ridgley et al., 2005).

First introduced in Europe in the late 1960s (Owen, 1977), flexible working arrangements have their roots in the need to provide employees in dual-career families, or with care responsibilities for dependents, with a way to ameliorate conflicts arising at the intersection of their work and home lives (Hill et al., 2001). Academic discussions on the subject of flexible working arrangements began in earnest in the 1970s amidst initial organisational resistance (Owen, 1977). Arrangements can include freedoms pertaining to both times and places worked, commonly known as ‘Flextime’ (or ‘Flexitime’) and ‘Flexplace’ respectively (Hill et al., 2001). For the purposes of concentrating the research question, this project explores the literature on working hours rather than working location.

Flexible hours can be extended even more by further dividing core hours into two periods, one in the morning and one in the afternoon, with a flexible lunch period in between. This provides a third party of flexible hours, when employees can tend to tasks and domestic chores look in on elderly relatives, or have lunch with a child Flexi leave enables employees to build up a small amount of time to accommodate occasional appointments without using holiday or work time (Ridgley et al., 2005).

• Origin

Initially, the concept of flexible work was synonymous with reduced or part- time workload (Collins, 1993), particularly for women with dependent children. Now the concept of “flexible work arrangements” incorporates a broad range of both formal and informal workplace practices designed to meet the “life” needs of a greater diversity of employees (Di Cieri et al., 2005). Since 1973 when Hewlett-Packard became the first U.S company to institute flex time, flexible work arrangements have grown in popularity and use. Data released by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in July of 2005 show that in 2004, 27.5 percent of all full-time workers in the U.S. had flexible work schedules (Schaefer, 2005).

Flexible works arrangements have been in use for a number of years. FWAs were first introduced at a German aerospace company in 1967 as a way to reduce employee absenteeism due to commuting issues (Avery & Zabel, 2001). Recent years have seen an increasing number of organizations in the UK offering a range of flexible working options to their employees (Kersley et al., 2006). For many employers this has been a response to increasing interest in work–life balance (Bailyn et al., 2001), the need to be competitive in the labor market (Rau & Hyland, 2002) and the introduction of legislation giving parents of young or disabled children and, more recently, careers, the right to request flexible working arrangements (Green, 2004).

• features

Flexitime is in operation as a part of the HR benefit package offered to employees (Scandura & Lankau, 1997). Flexitime does not alter the total number of hours for which the employee was hired, but most flexitime arrangements include schemes for logging surplus and deficit hours they may have incurred. For example, if during a given week, an employee’s family demands require him to arrive at work when core hours begin at 10:00 and leave when core hours end at 16:00, then over a five-day work week, she/he will accrue a deficit of 10 hours in her regular 40-hours work week. She can then repay her debt by extending her hours through the two flexitime periods (08:00 to 10:00, and 16:00 to 18:00) during another week, or by working extra hours on certain days in the months ahead (Gottlieb et al., 1998).

The need for flexibility increased during the latter part of the 20th century. More women entered the workforce and continued working after having children. The need for employees to care for parents increased as people lived longer, and this prompted requests for flexible schedules. Older workers continued to work beyond the traditional retirement age, though many seniors prefer part-time employment, seasonal work or flexible daily scheduling. The importance of continuing education also impacts employee work schedules. Telecommuting lends itself to planning work hours around other life responsibilities (Baer, 2011).

• Benefits of flexible work

Benefits: As a HR practice, flexitime provides considerable benefits to both employer and employee (Cohen & Single, 2003). Employee keeps full pay and benefits, unless number of hours worked each week decreases. Employee’s working and time off hours more closely meet their needs, often enhances employee’s productivity, may facilitate recruiting and retention, and it can reduce absenteeism and tardiness. Operational, managerial or professional work settings can accommodate flexitime (Almer & Kaplan, 2002).

Most of the prior researches on flexible work schedules have taken an organizational perspective by focusing on the impact of these schedules on outcomes that primarily benefit organizations. The following points summarize these benefits:

• ·  Increase employees job satisfaction (Baltes et al., 1999);
• ·  Increase organizational commitment (Glass & Finley, 2002);
• ·  Increased productivity (Pierce & Newstrom, 1980);
• ·  Decreased absenteeism and turnover (Hyland, 2000);
• ·  And increase applicant attraction to an organizations offering flexitime (Rau & Hyland, 2002).

2.2.11 Benefit of Flexible Work Arrangements to Employees

One of the main reasons why flexible work schedule have been recommended is to help employee reduce work–family conflict by allowing them more control over their work schedule. The following points summarize the benefit of FWAs to employees as result from deferent researches in FWAs field:

• • ·  Employees feel less stressed when they have more control over their schedule (Almer & Kaplan, 2002);
  • ·  Increased energy and creativity (Schaefer, 2005);
  • ·  Employees perceive that flexible working makes them “happy” and that there are attitudinal/behavioral links between this happiness, discretionary behavior and a number of performance outcomes (Atkinson & Hall, 2011);
  • ·  Achieving work/life balance for many office-based employees and less work- family conflict (Hayman, 2009).

2. Job satisfaction
   • Factors

Job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job experiences (Ogunaike, Akinbola & Ojo (2014). Locke (1976) defined it as the pleasant or positive state that one has from his/her job  experience.  It  is  employees perception that how much their expectations have fulfilled from their job.  Job  satisfaction is the state that how much output meets or exceeds our expectations and it represents the most important attitudes like work itself, salary, promotion opportunities, supervision and co-workers and people show positive response about it (Luthans, 1998).  The positive perception on job satisfaction brings about a positive feelings and encouragement to employees, therefore it is needed for employees to be satisfied with their jobs and condition of their jobs.

job satisfaction is describing as how contented the individual with  his or her job (Parvin and Kabir,  2011).  According  to  Balzar  et  al.,  (1997)  as  cited  in  Jehanzeb  et  al.,  (2012)  job satisfaction  is  a  sensation  the  employees  have  about  their  work  environment  and  their expectation towards work. Therefore, job satisfaction can be recognized as one’s desired or values from a job. (Brief and Weiss, 2002). Spector (1985) as cited in Khalid, Salim and Loke (2011),  suggested  that  employees  can  be  satisfied  with  some  elements  of  the  job  and simultaneously dissatisfied with others. Luthan and Sommers (2002) mentioned that different types of satisfaction  will  lead  to  different  intentions  and  behaviors that  arise  from  different types of motivation in  getting different types of rewards. As  cited  by  Ahmed et al., (2010), Feinstein  (2000)  stated  that  job  satisfaction  is  an  important  element  form  organizational perspective  as  it  leads  to  higher  organizational  commitment  of  employees  and  high commitment leads to overall organizational success and development.   Absence of  job satisfaction can  be reason  of lack of  interest and organizational commitment (Moser,  1997).  Rusbult  et  al.,  (1988)  mentioned  that  dissatisfaction  is  the  big  cause  for employees to leave the job and they are  more absent than  satisfied  employees.  Zafar  et  al., (2014) then elaborate that satisfied employees will spend more time to understand their works compared to dissatisfied employees. In addition, satisfied employees adapt changes in good or bad circumstances. Hence, as a result those who enjoyed their jobs are expected to have strong motivation and vice versa. This also in line with Locke (1969) as cited in Ogunaike, Akinbola & Ojo (2014) mentioned that job satisfaction is perceived as creating positive feeling among employees  which  in  turn  represents  positive  emotional  reaction  towards  desire  for empowerment. The situation  is  only achieved when one  realized one’s important job values provide  are  congruent with  one’s basic  needs.  Ogunaike,  Akinbola  & Ojo  (2014)  further explained that  the conditions conductive to job satisfaction are: mentally challenging works, personal interest in the work, work that is not too physically tiring, rewards for performance, informative and in line with employees aspirations, flexible and compatible working condition suitable to individual needs and high self-esteem on the part of the employee

• components

Effects on Work-Family Balance

According to Gottlieb and others (1998), flexible work arrangements are frequently cited as a means of helping employees balance work and family responsibilities. In one of the few studies to examine this question directly, reported that employees who had a flexitime arrangements reported less work- family conflict than did employees who had conventional arrangements.

In a study funded by Hill, Ferris & Martinson (2003) examined whether and to what extent the different work venues of virtual offices, home offices or traditional offices impacted job performance; motivation; retention and career opportunity; and family life balance. Their findings suggested that virtual and home offices showed mostly positive effects on the job performance variables, while traditional office arrangements showed mostly negative effects. In contrast, arrangements that involve a reduced number of hours at work are associated with lower levels of work-family conflict. Thus individuals engaged in part-time work, job sharing, and to a lesser extent, compressed work weeks reported lower levels of work-family interference. Taken together, these observations suggest a limited effect of flexible work arrangements on work and family balance. By spending less time on running and maintaining their home and work, employees will have more fulfillment and satisfaction, such as our relationships with friends and family (Hinz, 2011).

Saltzstein, Ting & Saltzstein (2001) looked for correlations between perceptions of work-family balance and overall job satisfaction and found quite diverse effects and evidence of trade-offs being made by employees utilizing family-friendly policies. In this study, working at home “on the clock” was associated with a positive impact on job satisfaction but a significant negative influence on work-family balance. The findings also suggested that childcare options, compressed schedules and flexible scheduling did not affect work-family balance; however, childcare options and working from home were associated with positive effects on job satisfaction, while compressed schedules and part-time schedules had no effect on job satisfaction

Effects on Employee’s Stress

Flexible work arrangements have also been identified as a means of reducing employee stress although comparatively little research has addressed this outcome. Studies suggest a limited role of flexible work arrangements in reducing employee stress. Part-time workers and individuals engaged in job sharing reported greater life satisfaction, possibly as a result of lower levels of work-family conflict (Dunham et al., 1987).

Sweeney (2003) cited improved recruitment, retention and productivity along with lower costs, decreased stress and absenteeism and an improved ability in managing work-family demands as advantages of organizations offering flexible working hours. Halpern (2005) found similar evidence, stating that the greater the workplace flexibility, the less work employees miss.

3. Employee motivation
   • Factors

Motivation is not an easy practice to understands due to involvement of various disciplines in a topic. According to Shahzadi et. al (2014) motivation usually is not clearly understood rather than  poorly  practiced.  Hence,  in  order  to  understand  what  motivates  employees  in  the organization, the  manager or  superior need to understand the human  nature and  human need first.  The  better understanding  an  appreciation  of  this subject  is  a  prerequisite to  effective employee motivation in the organization and eventually will prolong to effective management

and leadership as well as the organization performance

Motivation is not an easy practice to understands due to involvement of various disciplines in a topic. According to Shahzadi et. al (2014) motivation usually is not clearly understood rather than  poorly  practiced.  Hence,  in  order  to  understand  what  motivates  employees  in  the organization, the  manager or  superior need to understand the human  nature and  human need first.  The  better understanding  an  appreciation  of  this subject  is  a  prerequisite to  effective employee motivation in the organization and eventually will prolong to effective management and leadership as well as the organization performance

Motivation originated from Latin word of ‘movere’ which means to move or to carry. (Baron, Henley, McGibbon and McCarthy, 2002  as mentioned in  Ogunaike,  Akinbola & Ojo, 2014) Motivation is the force  that constantly induces to move and perform things. (Jehanzeb et al., 2012). Luthans and Sommers, (2005) suggested that motivation is the process that energizes, alter attitudes and sustain good behavior and performance. Motivation relay on certain intrinsic and  extrinsic  features  that  are  collaborated  with  positive  results  in  abundantly  devoted employees.  The  features  such  as  incentives  and  rewards  are  the  most  favored  factors  for employees motivation program according to Jehanzeb et al.,(2012).

• components

In any organizations, rewards play an important role in building and sustaining the commitment among  employees  that  ensures  high  standard  of  performance  and  workforce  consistency (Wang, 2004). Rewards also play a vital role in determining the significant performance in job and it is positively involved with the process of motivation (Zafar et al., 2014). Schaufeli et al. (2002) stresses on the importance of rewards in order to contest be exhausted, which is typically experienced  by  most  employees  on  the  job.  Luthans  and  Sommers  (2005)  explained  that rewards  were  received  as  an  exchange  of  services  between  employee  and  employer.  The normal tradition of employees’ job description and job specification will determine rewards in order to maintain equity among employees in the organization. (Zaini et al. 2009) Reward refer to all categories of financial benefits, tangible services and benefits that an employee receives as part of employment relationship with the organization.   As  mentioned  by  Jehanzeb  et  al.  (2012),  reward  increase  the  level  of  efficiency  and performance of the employees on their jobs and in the results thereof increase the success of the  organization.  Rusbult  and  Farrel  (1983)  grouped  rewards  into  intrinsic  rewards  which includes feeling of passion, energy, enthusiasm  and  autonomy. Meanwhile, Actar, Uddin & Schu, (2013) grouped intrinsic rewards as recognition, learning opportunity, challenging work, appreciation and career advancement. On the other hands, extrinsic rewards involve pay, co-workers relationship and  security (Abdullah, 1994) basic pay, performance bonus, incentive for extra work and festival bonus. (Actar, Uddin & Schu, 2013).

Zafar et al. (2014) reviewed extrinsic rewards as tangible in nature where it also been defined as monetary rewards. According to Carraher (2006), the organization must have a successful extrinsic  reward  system  in  order  to  get  better  performance  and  high  efficiency  of  the employees. This is due to the tangible rewards obtained by the employers due to doing the job, such as pay  and promotion. As mentioned  in  Zafar et al. (2014)  by Mottaz (1985) says that extrinsic rewards are also known as social and organizational rewards. Organizational rewards are  like  pay,  bonuses  and fringe  benefits  which can  be  seen  (Katz  &  Van  Maanen,  1977; Malhotra  et  al.,2007; Mottaz,  1985).  Meanwhile,  social  rewards refer  to  those  that  can be derived from interaction with others on job. (Manzoor et al.,2015)  On the other side, intrinsic rewards exist as intangible in nature and known as non-monetary rewards which are the rewards within the job itself such as satisfaction from completing a task, appreciation from employer (Zafar et al.,2014). Previous research shows that intrinsic rewards have important implications for workers’ overall satisfaction at work and desire to commit to heir  job  (Broussard  and  Garrison,  2004; Guay  et  al.,2010).  In  relation  to  that,  Ogunaike, Akinbola &  Ojo (2014) mentioned that this type of motivation is  from within an  individual. When intrinsically motivated  an individual is moved  to act for  the  fun or challenge  entailed rather than due to external pressures or rewards.  Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is animated by personal enjoyment, interest or pleasure and is usually contrasted with extrinsic motivation, which is manipulated by reinforced contingencies (Guay et al., 2010)

4. Barriers

barriers for individuals, for instance, challenges in managing career advancement, professional image, reduced income, difficulty in participating in social activities in the workplace and professional networking (MacDermid et al. 2001; Lawrence and Corwin 2003; Hill et al. 2004). administrative barriers, such as work coordination and scheduling problems, difficulties in evaluating performance and equity issues, as they are not available to all employees but mainly to low-level employees (Scandura and Lankau 1997; Lawrence and Corwin 2003; Charron and Lowe 2005).

Despite the proliferation of studies exploring the outcomes of flexible work arrangements, little research has focused on how the perceived benefits and costs may affect one’s decision to participate in flexible work arrangements or not. Pe ́rez, De Luis Carnicer and Sa ́nchez (2002) examined how perceived benefits and barriers from teleworking may differentiate companies that adopt teleworking or not. As was expected, HR managers who perceive fewer barriers and more benefits from teleworking are more likely to introduce teleworking in the organisation. Moreover, it is noteworthy that the adoption of teleworking was more strongly related to the benefits and not to the barriers variables.

In another study, Albion (2004) assessed the predictive value of work–family balance benefits and barriers in the decision of employees to participate in flexible work arrangements. Results indicated that work–family issues (benefits) were more important predictors of the use of flexible work option than any of the perceived barriers. In other words, when employees believe that they can achieve work–family balance through flexible work arrangements, then these employees are more likely to work under a flexible work arrangement despite any barriers.

Challenges: Employee may not provide supervision at all hours. Key people may be unavailable at certain times, requiring cross-training to ensure coverage and may create difficulty in scheduling meetings, coordinating projects, etc. like other flexible work arrangements, the degree of variation in employees’ hours of work that can be accommodated depends on the number of daily hours the organization operates, the hours each employee is required to be present, the extent to which satisfaction of other workers’ and customers’ needs depends on interaction with the employee, and the manager’s tolerance of work schedule variability (Anderson & Ungemah, 1999).

The major barrier to implementation of flexible working hours is structural in nature — policies simply don’t exist.

It is the communication gap between the creation of flexible working hour arrangements and the dissemination of the information pertaining to these arrangements that has created the low adoption rates.